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The Scientific Revolution:
The Scientific Revolution was a period of scientific discovery in Europe during the 16th-17th centuries. This period revolutionized science, scientific method, ideas about the universe, about nature, and religion. The scientific revolution promoted a new way of thinking that challenged traditional views of the government and the Church. It also gave rise to a new generation of accomplished thinkers, researchers, philosophers, and scientists. This movement was a precursor to the Enlightenment and the causes of its arrival are linked to the Renaissance. The ideas of free-thinking, humanism, and the individual’s emphasis helped spark the flame of the scientific revolution. As well as the flood of new opinions from the Age of Exploration. Classical Greek scholars like Aristotle came back into light through medieval universities and scholasticism, which was a system of philosophy based on Aristotle’s thinking. This inspired the challenge of the Middle Age ideas. The reliance on the Catholic Church and other faiths lessened due to the Scientific Revolution and the new reliance on reason and experimentation.
The four main scientists of the Scientific Revolution were Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton. Copernicus, the first and the cornerstone of the four, used math and observation to explain the universe. Copernicus discovered the heliocentric theory, which challenged the idea that the Earth was the center of the universe. Instead, the Sun was the center, and everything revolved around it. Copernicus also developed that the universe and Earth are spherical as rotated on an axis. Kepler supported Copernicus’s heliocentric model and developed three laws of planetary motion. Galileo invented and used the telescope to confirm the findings of Copernicus. He emphasized the scientific method and experimentation as well as moving away from faiths. He was condemned by the Catholic Inquisition, was forced to recant his statements, and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. Newton built upon the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo. Newton was able to develop the Laws of Gravity and Laws of Motion.
The Scientific Revolution had immediate impacts on Europe. It promoted challenging authority. It emphasized observations, experimentation, and reason. The Scientific Revolution also had long-term effects that reached all around the world. In Russia, Peter The Great, inspired by the West, forced Russia to “catch up” by Westernization. In Japan, interactions with the Dutch in the port of Nagasaki helped pull them out of isolation and inspired them to “catch up.” In Egypt, scholars from the Middle East came to learn at W.estern Universities, as well as Western Scholars were paid to go and study themselves Eventually, Egypt split from the Ottoman Empire. Globally, significant political change highlyue to the Scientific Revolution, as it started the Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment:
Before the Enlightenment occurred and after the Scientific Revolution occurred a small pa shorthere there was an evolution of Political Thought. Two political thinkers were extremely influential during this time: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Another important term is the social contract, which is not a physical contract, but a social agreement between the people and the government of what must be traded between each party to remain in order.
Thomaan authoritarianssed the execution of Charles l during the English Civil War, t. Thisaped his view on what a good government should function as. Hobbes had a pessimistic view of human nature; he viewed humans as cruel, greedy, and selfish. Humans, according to Hobbes, were based in fear and lived in a “state of war.” Hobbes' idea of the social contract was to be an agreement between the subjects, but not between the ruler and the issues. Hobbes believed in an Absolute Monarchy in which people should willingly relinquish rights and autonomy to an authoritative government for order and protection. Hobbes' ideas were later used to justify Absolute Rule.
On the other hand, John Locke witnessed the Glorious Revolution, which instead changed his political views. Locke believed that humans were reasonable, cooperative and believed in a much different social contract than Hobbes. John Locke believed in a limited monarchy. He also thought that the role of government was to protect the people's “natural rights”: life, liberty, and property. People did have to relinquish some rights to the government, but if the government failed to protect natural rights, the people had the right to revolution. Locke’s social contract described that the people gave the government power, and if the government did not protect the people, the revolution was justified. Locke inspired other later Enlightenment thinkers and was known as the “Father of American Revolution,” who inspired many other revolutionaries worldwide.
The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, occurred during the 17th and 18th centuries, and it was a period of political change and political thinking. It came from the Scientific Revelation, in which scientific methods were used to examine political, economic, and social problems. The Scientific Revolution caused the EnlightenmentEstates-General, the Protestant Reformation as it helped to challenge the Church, the invention of the printing press that was able to spread ideas, the coffee houses and salons that extend ideas among nobles, the Renaissance Period, and the new trade brought with the Age of Exploration. The Enlightenment caused the spread of new ideas and ideologies around Western Europe and the world. It helped give insight on how to organize society and governments best. It paved the way for many revolutions to happen shortly, especially in France and Latin America. It also allowed people to believe in progress, find problems in society and work to change them instead of just letting them continue. During this time, many enlightened individuals published their works of literature that helped shape the enlightenment.
Besides Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, other influential thinkers would be Jean Jacques Rousseau. Rousseau is responsible for writing “The Social Contract''. In which he determines that civil liberty is formed by citizens who give up freedom for security. He believed that people choose to give up their interests for the common good, which is not always the majority. He later influenced the writing of constitutional governments. Another critical thinker was Baron de Montesquieu, who wrote “The Spirit of the Laws''. Here, he admired the limited English monarchies and developed an idea that a government power will be split up and monitored with “checks “ balances'. ‘He thoroughly influenced the formation of the United States Government. The next notable author Voltaire, or Frances Maire Arouet, used wit and satire to criticize the abuses of monarchies and support limited monarchies. He fought against inequities, and he was therefore then imprisoned in Bastille. He effectively influenced the formation of the United States Bill Of Rights. Another thinker of the Enlightenment, Adam Smith, is known as the “Father of Modern Capitalism.” Adam Smith was a physiocrat or a philosopher that dealt with economics. He believes in Laissez-Faire, or “hands-off,” meaning that the government should not interfere with trade and the market. He spoke of the “invisible hand” of supply and demand. Lastly, Mary Wollstonecraft is noted as the pioneering feminist as she wrote “The Vindication on the Rights of Women.” She led the beginning of feminist and women's rights movements.
The effects of the Enlightenment were vast. The Enlightenment inspired much change from political systems. It encouraged people to rebel in ordertoeedoms and political change. The “Letters from Jamaica,” “ The Declaration Of Independence,” and the “Declaration Of The Rights Of Men and Citizens” are all a result of the Enlightenment. These letters and Declarations inspired and declared revolutions on governments; due to the Enlightenment, a rise of what is known as Enlightened Despots occurred. Enlightened despots were Absolute monarchs that accepted the ideas of their citizens to remain in power, like Catherine The Great. The reforms made by Enlightened Despots didn't last for long and were just to stay in control. Social reforms consisting of many abolishments occurred. The Slave Trade Act Of 1807 By William Wilberforce outlawed slave trading with the British Empire. Also, the Slavery Abolition Act of 1863 “freed” slaves with indentured service and apprenticeships. In Russia, the Emancipation Manifestation of 1861 freed Serfs from working private lands, but many Serfs continued to work despite these changes as they did not know how to function in another workforce. The role of women's suffrage was stalked by Mary Wollstonecraft contained in Seneca falls Convention and the “Declaration Of Sentiments,” which called for women's rights. Lastly, a rise in Nationalism or extreme pride in one's country rose after the Enlightenment. This happened due to unity between people and led to revolutions and the splitting of nations.
Era Of Atlantic Revolutions:
The Age of Enlightenment-inspired revolutions, especially revolutions in the Atlantic. The ideals of the Renaissance: Humanism, Protestant Reformation, Nationalism, new prophetic from the Age of Exploration led to the standards of the Enlightenment. These ideals being: natural rights, liberty, equality, limited government. These ideas of the Enlightenment made a clear path for citizens and colonies to break away from their oppressive mother counties and absolute monarchs. During the 18th and 19th centuries, a series of revolutions broke out on both sides of the Atlantic. The American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Independence of Haiti, Revolutions in Latin America, and even more later in Western Europe were all a product of the Enlightenment. These revolutions addressed the authority of governments, greeted political representation, popular sovereignty, and equality. There were many similarities between all these revolutions, but the circumstances and details of these revolutions differ from one another. The American Revolution, which happened first, inspired many other revolutions to erupt.
The American Revolution:
The British Colonies in the Americas erupted into one of the most influential revolutions in history. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the tension gradually grew between the mother country and the Americas due to a series of taxes, poor control, and lack of representation. Before the conflicts, the Mayflower Contract was established. This contract was an early attempt at self-government in which the colonists would follow the laws they set. Later a more concrete form of Colonial government shone through. Based on the Mayflower Contract, the House of Burgesses in Virginia, and Town Hall Meetings, self-government was present in the Colonies. The early British policy of salutary neglect influenced this. The British allowed some degree of independence to the Colonies as long as the colonies were loyal and did not interfere with economic policies. This system worked well until the French and Indian War.
The French and Indian War was a war between the French and Britain over American and Indian Land. The British got involved after American forces lost to France. It was the first global conflict, in which Britain eventually became one. The war, also known as the 7 Year War, was costly. There were several economic problems as territorial problems because of this. The Proclamation of 1763 was signed by King Geroge lll, and it made settling West of the Appalachian mountains illegal. It diffused Colonial tensions with Native Americans but made things worse between the Colonists and Britain as there was now more governmental control. Next, a series of acts and laws will deteriorate the relationship between the Colonists and the British government. The first act passed was the sugar act. The passing of the sugar act was the end of salutary neglect. It was a tax on sugar and some textiles to pay off the French and Indian War debt. After that, the Stamp Act was passed. This act facilitated a tax on all paper goods like essential documents and newspapers. This was the first tax that took money directly from the Colonists and gave it to Britain, which truly upset Americans. Because of this act a series of boycotts occurred, in which Americans would not purchase British goods. This was the start of civil disobedience of Americans The Sons Of Liberty also were formed, an organization focused on liberating the American colonies. The Stamp Act was eventually repealed in 1766. Showing that American protests were reaching the ears of the British government. Next, the Townshend Acts were passed. These were another series of taxes passed on paper, tea, and glass to pay off the costs from the French and Indian war and just protecting the colonies. This led to more American civil disobedience and boycotts.
Things did get progressively worse in the Colonies and at this point, there is a change of tides where many Americans are no longer wishing for the taxes to be appealed, but for independence. This is demonstrated best by the Boston Massacre, which was boiling over tension between British Soldiers and the American People. In Boston, a despondent group of civilians was harassing British Soldiers. British soldiers will raise arms against the people, shooting the civilians and killing five. This caused the active military troops in the Colonies to withdraw. The Tea Act was passed next, and it was some of the last few straws that broke the camel's back. The Tea Act taxed all tea imported into the colonies and created a monopoly of the British East India Company. There was no longer a middle man, and therefore colonial merchants lost their jobs. The Boston Tea Party was a direct result of the Tea Acts. The Boston Tea Party was an act of civil disobedience by the Sons Of Liberty in which a considerable amount of tea was dumped into the Boston harbor to protest the Tea Act. Because of this, the Coercive, or Intolerable Acts, were passed. These acts pushed the Colonies by shutting down the Boston Harbor entirely until Boston paid off all the tea.
Americans now are actively rallying against British control. The First Continental Congress occurred. The Continental Congress was a group meeting with representatives from every colony. They gathered to oppose the Intolerable Acts and support civil disobedience and boycotts. Here, they began to draft the Declaration of Independence. Before the Declaration of Independence was ratified, Lexington and Concord happened. At Lexington and Concord, minutemen take arms against the British Soldiers. It is not known who shot first, but it is regarded as the start of the American Revolution. “Common Sense,” a pamphlet by Thomas Paine, was published. This work tried to convince others that a revolution was the only option and to rally colonial support. He introduced the idea of “no taxation without representation.” Shortly after, the Declaration of Independence was ratified on July 4th, 1773, as a list of grievances and a statement of independence.
The American Revolution was a seven-year war where the Colonies were eventually granted independence from Britain. The revolution stood as a symbol and an inspiration for others worldwide, especially the other Atlantic Revolutions. The Declaration of Independence stood as an Enlightenment Document that helped others draft their grievances and revolutions. American State governments were established within a new Republic. There was an extension of voting rights and an abolishment of aristocratic titles. Within the government, there was a separation of Church and State. Unfortunately, there were no real improvements for slaves of women. The American Revolution emphasized natural rights through the implementation of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Adam Smith published the “Wealth of Nations'' that sets the principles for modern capitalism. Abigail Adams published “Remember the Ladies'' to try and gain support for the feminist movement.
The French Revolution:
The French Revolution was a monumental event in the history of the world. It can be broken down into the moderate phase, the radical phase, and the reactionary phase. The reactionary phase will fade into the Age Of Napoleon. The Revolution was caused by social, political, economic reasons, but the oppression of the Third Estate was a fundamental reason for the Revolution. The Enlightenment Ideas as well as the American Revolution inspired the French people to rise up to their government. The immediate cause of the Revolution was the calling of an Estates General Meeting.
The social issues of the French Society were based upon the Estate System. The Estate System was an outdated social system in French society. It was based on the previous Medieval System from many years ago. There were Three Estates. The First Estate was the highest member of society, they were 1% of the population in which they owned 10% of the land. The First Estate was made up of the Church Clergy members, as the Church was very important in medieval society. The Second Estate was made of the royals and nobles. They made up around 2% of the population in which they own 25% of overall land. The Third Estate was made up of simply everyone else. It made up 97% of the population in which these people own 65% of the land. This class was made up of the educated middle class, city workers, and peasants. The educated middle class was known as the bourgeoisie, and they would eventually lead the Third Estate in the revolution. The social classes of the Estate System were completely outdated. The Estate System promoted wealth and land disparity as the Third Estate suffered while the First and Second Estate Enjoyed wealth, power, and land. The rise of the bourgeoisie also is an important social factor that contributes to the French Revolution as the bourgeoisie will eventually lead the revolution.
Politically, an absolute monarchy forced a lack of freedoms, rights, and say in government. Within the already out-of-touch government, there was deep-rooted corruption. The rise of Enlightenment political ideas like natural rights, freedom, equality, and liberty inspired the French people to stand up to the government. The American Revolution also thoroughly inspired the French Revolution,
There were also several economic reasons that pushed France to a Revolution. The Third Estate was the only Estate taxed, so of course, taxes were unequal. A poor harvest created a famine that increased the price of food. The rich were not affected by this, but when bread became the price of one month’s wage, the poor starved. There was also a great financial crisis in France at the time. This was a severe crisis as French was definite spending. France was in large amounts of debt from the French and Indian war as well as the royal's lavish lifestyle.
In May 1789, King Louis XVIll called together the Estates-General. The Estates-General has not been called together in over 100 years, due to absolute rule. It called on representatives from each Estate to vote along with the King. The King was forced to call together the Estates-General as France was about to fall into a severe financial crisis. Due to the French and Indian war, as well as the elaborate lives of the rich, the country was in serious debt. The representatives of the Third Estate usually weren't able to make much progress within the General, as the First and Second State usually voted together, outweighing the Third Estate. But after a month of deliberating, mostly members of the Third Estate, after they were locked out of the Estates-General, gathered together on a tennis court. Here, they said the Tennis Court Oath and formed the National Assembly. These members promised to never have the Estates vote divided and that they would not break up until they had formed a Constitution that voiced the needs of the Third Estate. The National Assembly was disbanded by the King, and the moderate phase of the French Revolution had begun. The supporters of a moderate revolution later become known as the Girondins, and they do not support complete change but instead a limited monarchy.
The Fall and Storming of the Bastille was the first act of violent civil disobedience. Bastille, a prison known for hosting political prisoners. Civilians stormed the prison looking for gunpowder in hopes of protecting themselves from the King’s army. Though the people may not have found gunpowder, this stood as a symbol as the people had stood up to the monarchy. The Declaration of The Rights of Man And Citizen, published in August 1789, was an Enlightenment document that was written by the National Assembly. The declaration was the grievances of the Third Estate that advocated for natural rights, equality between citizens, and a limited monarch. This was an extremely important document that influenced France and many other countries in the future. The next important event is the March on Versailles. Here, mostly starving peasant women march to the King's palace in Versailles and demand he comes to Paris. The King ends up in Paris, but not before he tries to flee France during the Flight to Varennes. This only fuels the revolution and the National Assembly declares a limited monarchy. While King was trying to escape to other European powers, in which he tried to gather support for the Declaration of Pillnitz in 1791. These other European countries said no, and declared war on France. France was now locked in a war with Prussia, Russia, and Austria where revolutionaries had to fight both the French government and other foreign powers. In September of 1791, the Constitution of 1791 was passed by the Legislative Assembly, which is the National Assembly. This Constitution expanded legislative powers and only lasted for a year, but it did cement a limited monarchy. This is the end of the moderate phase, now the revolution will begin to spiral and lose its original values.
In 1792, the September Masses detonated the start of the radical phase. The Radicals, later to be called the Jacobins, wanted a complete change and restructuring of France, and they would stop at nothing to get it. Here, revolutions stormed prisons that they thought were holding counter-revolutionaries. They killed and raped around 100 political prisoners. This was the beginning of a violent wing of the revolution. Next, in 1792, an assembly in France came together to make France a true republic. They extended the right to vote to all men, not just landowners, and abolished the monarchy once and for all. In January 1793, King Louis XVIII was executed by guillotine for treason and conspiracy with foreign powers. The Committee of Public Safety was then formed in 1793 after the execution of the King. The Committee was led by radical Maximilian Robespierre. It was created in order to protect the new, monarch-less republic of France from military attack. They drafted all healthy men to fight against Austria and Prussia as well as counter-revolutionaries in France. As the radical’s tools primary control of the revolution, it did not mean moderates were fine with the way change was progressing. Marat, an expansive French writer who created chaos with his work, was killed by Charlotte Corday. Corday was later killed by guillotine, but her reason for killing Marat was due to the radical sensationalism spread. Only a month after the formation of the Committee of Public Safety, Holland, Spain, and Britain declared war on France. These countries wished for the revolution to stop so that it would not inspire a revolution within their own country, as well as that France had taken control over parts of Holland. There was now another draft and the creation of a national army. The radical Committee of Public Safety then increased the Reign of Terror in which they wanted to remove all moderates, counter-revolutions, supporters of the monarchy, and Catholics from society. They removed these members by killing them. There was great catholic persecution with the removal and replacement of religious figures. More than 100,000 people were arrested and 40,000 killed during the reign of terror. Robespierre grew crazed with his power and took complete control and support of the killings. In 1794, Robespierre was executed by guillotine due to his leadership of the Committee, and his radical policies. This was the end of the radical stage of the Revolution and the Reign of Terror.
The reactionary phase of the Revolution was a phase in which France simply tried to recover, but it unsparingly did not work well. First, the Constitution of 1795 was written. It formed a liberal republic that included legislative processes. It worked to restore order and give more power to the Middle Class. This included the formation of the Directory. The Directory was the official end to the Reign of Terror. It was led by a five-man executive branch with representatives from the Third Eststaes’s Middle Class which made up two legislative bodies. It was a weak form of government due to its corruption, promotion of only the Middle Class, food shortages, financial issues, inability to calm riots, and weak executive powers. The Directory set the stage for the Rise of Napoleon.
The French Revolution marked an end of absolute monarchies in France as well as the end of a powerful noble class. It thoroughly increased the power of the bourgeoisie as well as the entire Third Estate, some peasants were even able to own land. It created a sense of nationalism in France and contented the spread of Enlightenment ideas.
The Age Of Napoleon:
Napoleon was a French Military genius. He joined the Revolution early on and was described as a characteristic, military leader. He gained power and influence under the Directories rule in France. In 1799, he overthrew the Directory in what is known as the Coup D’Etat. Though this was a coup, there was no violence as the Directory was so bad at what they did, they handed overpower. This made Napoleon the First Consul. Napoleon then helped a plebiscite, or balot, that eventually had him crown himself Emperor of the French. He made sure to physically crown himself, and he did not give too much care to the fact that France was a Republic.
Under Napoleonic France, there was some improvement in French Society, but something remained the same or became even worse. First Napoleon enacted The Code Of Napoleon, which was a uniform law code that granted equality under the law. He also established the “Legion of Honor'' which recognized those who served in the French Military. Though it was supposed to be based on merit, there was a great deal of nepotism. Napoleon created an organized government that brought order and stability back to France. He implemented free public education and religious tolerance, he even made peace with the Church in the Concordat of 1801. But, the status of women decreased at this time, as well as the right to free speech. Napoleon established the bank of France and stabilized French currency. He modernized and stimulated the company. He also helped France industrialize. He worked to balance the budget and implement a more equal tax system. Napoleon increased nationalism under his rule in France.
Though Napoleon did a lot in France, his influence reached outside of French borders. In 1799-1814, the war with Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia from the Revolution was continued under Napoleon. He used Levee En Masse, or a draft to rally the support of the people, in which he eventually won the war. French influence spread throughout Europe because of this. In 1805, the French Navy was destroyed by the British which established Great Britain as a naval superpower, but this only angered Napoleon.
This loss with the British navy led to one of Napoleon's three mistakes. This was the Continental System, in which Napoleon attempted to blockade Britain which would prevent all trade to weaken Great Britain. But this ended up hurting France more than Britain, as Britain had Russia and the Colonies supplied it with trade. The next mistake was the Peninsular War in which Napoleon attempted to invade Portugal. While doing this he put his brother on the throne of Spain, which caused the Spanish to gain nationalism, rise, and revolt against Napoleon. Lastly, Napoleon attempted to invade Russia during the winter. The Russians adopted the Scorched Earth Policy in which they burned their land to rid the French of supplies. The Russian General Winter defeated the French by its freezing temperatures and lack of supplies. Because of this, Napoleon was exiled in Elba. He then tried to return during the Battle of Waterloo, where he was then exiled again in St. Helena. Napoleon gave back his throne willingly. This marked the absolute end of the French Revolution. After he was exiled, a limited monarchy returned to France.
Haitian Revolution:
Haiti, which during this time, was known as St. Domingue was an island with a plantation economy that was colonized by France. The majority of the population was made up of slaves that worked to farm sugar and coffee, though there were some free men of color known as Mulatos. This meant that the number of slaves on the island heavily outnumbered white masters. The island was heavily dependent on slave labor for its economy. Though slavery usually implies terrible treatment, on this island work for slaves was intense and especially horrible. This gave way to the perfect conditions for a grand slave revolution. Unlike the French and American Revolutions that were for independence from a country, the primary goal of the Haitian Revolution was for the freedom of slaves.
In August 1791 more than 100,000 slaves rose for their freedom. Their leader, Toussaint L’Ouverture was a freed house slave who became a great general. He was so great, he will be later compared to George Washington and Napoleon. He was an educated and charismatic military leader. Because of his leadership, in 1798 slavery ends but St. Domingue still belongs to France. Later on in 1801, the Constitution of 1801 declared equality for all. Toussaint heavily believed in harmony between races, even races that had previously been oppressive to black people. On January 1st, 1804, Haiti officially declared independence from France. A man named Jean-Jacques Dessalines is declared the Governor of the nation. Under his rule, white people were pursued and slaughtered. Biracial citizens did not fare any better under his rule. Black people are also not satisfied with his rule as their lives barely improved since he took power. In 1805, Dessalines officially declared himself emperor of Haiti, this rulership is a great change from Toussaint who wished for racial harmony.
From Haiti’s Revolution came the second overall independent colony in America and the first non-slave state in the West. Haiti became the first Black Republic and was also the first territory to free itself from under European control. It was the first nation to also gain independence from an original slave uprising. All of this led to an increase in Haitian nationalism. This was an incredible feat that inspired other nations to take up arms.
South American And Latin American Revolutions:
The various Revolutions in South America were caused by several factors. The Enlightenment ideas of questioning authority, limited governments, and Natural Rights. The American Revolution was an inspiration as it emphasized natural rights and that revolution was possible. The French Revolution was an important inspiration for Latin America as it emphasized liberty, equality, and fraternity among people. The European colonization of Spanish South America and Latin America led to high taxes, poverty, and unemployment through the Mercantilism system. Within Latin and South America there was vast social inequality. The social system called the Casta System was as follows: Peninsulares, Creoles, Mestizos, Mulattos, Native Americans, and lastly African slaves. There was great tension between Creoles, white people born in the Americas, and Peninsulares, white people born in Europe. Peninsulares had government representation, where Creoles did not. This caused the Creoles, like the French bourgeoisie, to lead the revolutions. For the white-Indian Mestizos, the white-African Mulattoes, Native Americans and slaves, desired freedoms, rights, equality, and social mobility. This was the perfect time for revolution, as tensions became greater with Napoleon of France but his brother on the throne of Spain. Spain, which colonized Brazil, now has a new, weak king.
In Spanish South America, the revolution was led mostly by the Creoles. Though these Creoles were fighting for their political rights, they still were wealthy and feared the masses or Native and black people. In the Northern part of South America, Simon Bolivar led the revolution. He was a Creole that was inspired by Enlightenment ideas. He later went on to write the “Jamaica Letter”, which expressed the concerns of Jamaicans. Bolivar was known as the great liberator, as he helped free Venezuela, Columbia, and Ecuador. His main goal was to unite all of South America into a “Gran Colombia”, but this was not successful as South Americans had many different identities, cultures, and languages. In the Southern Part of South America, Jose de San Martin worked to free Argentina, Chillie, Paraguay, and Uruguay from European powers. Martin and Bolivar join forces to clear out the Spanish from Peru and Bolivia, freeing South America From European rule.
Brazil was a special case in the South American Revolutions. Its reasons for revolt we’re all very similar to the rest of Spanish South America. The initial movements of the revolution were not effective due to a lack of organization. The masses do unite together to fight for freedom, but no violence ends up being needed. Portugal, which controlled Brazil, had left a son of the royal family to rule over Brazil while they were living in Brazil during Napoleon’s rule. This son, Pedro, was especially empathetic towards his people’s cause, and let Brazil free without a need for violence in 1822. A constitutional monarchy was insisted on, which allowed Brazil to remain stable after independence. Even though Brazil was Independent, there was no real social change, the wealthy landowners remained on top and the slaves still suffered.
In Mexico, which also revolted for similar reasons, a revolution was led by Father Miguel Hidalgo and assisted by Joes Moralesideasse Creoles fought not only for independence but for the social equality of all people. Hidalgo fought for independence with his speech, “El Grito De Dolores'', or the cry of a city called Dolores. The other Creoles did not support this, and the two men were eventually assassinated. After the death of both men, wealthy Creoles take over the revolution, and win independence, but not for all people. Only Creoles truly benefit from this. After independence, a constitution was developed, but it was not followed. Agustin De Iturbide takes over Mexico as a dictator and declares himself emperor. He was then taken over in 1823. But, just like in Brazil, there is no true social or economic reform for the lower class and slaves, only change for the Creoles.
After independence, a nation faces many problems. In South America, free nations struggle with a multitude of issues. First is Political Fragmentation, in which geographic barriers, a lack of shared culture, and a lack of overall nationalism made it impossible for the twenty independent nations to join together after a revolution. The rise of Caudillos and dictators was another issue for new nations. Caudillos are military strongmen who influence governments, for example, Mexico. These military leaders discarded constitutions and benefited the rich landowners. The next issue was political tension. Civil wars, revolutions, the rise of dictators, and Caudillos all plagued early nations. Economic dependency on foreign investments, foreign goods and reliance on cash crops was another issue these nations faced. This caused unemployment, poverty, and an unstable and non-diverse economy. Many social inequalities continued after these revolutions. For example, nothing really improved for lower-class members and slaves, but the Creoles just took the previous position of the Peninsulares. The power remained in the hands of white, wealthy, landowners.
The biggest issue these nations had to deal with was foreign interventions, especially from the United States. In 1823, the United States enacted the Monroe Doctrine. This stated that they would take arms against any European power that tried to colonize Latin or South America. They pledged to protect Latin and South America but instead used this power to manipulate them for economic gain. The United States also fought in the Mexican-American war, which they won and gained more territories. The war ended in 1848 with the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Spanish-American War was fought to gain independence from Cuba in 1898, which led to decades of American intervention which set the stage for later issues. The creator of the Panama Canal was another example of “Yankee Imperialism”, or American Intervention. As the United States defeated Columbia in order to take control of the land to build a canal that would facilitate lots of trade.
19th Century Europe: Nationalism and Unification:
After the Age of Atlantic Revolution and the Age of Napoleon, there were many new social undercurrents in society. While revolutionary ideas were supported in Latin and South America, Europe tried to hang onto their older political systems. It's important to understand the Political Climate of Europe at the time in order to better understand how the changes affected the continent. First, the definition of Political Ideologies are beliefs specific to issues facing nations, it's used to categorize people on where they stand with opinions on these issues. The political spectrum is the ranking of political ideologies: it placed libreal views towards the left and concertvative views towards the right. People who held libreal beliefs desired change. They placed an emphasis on liberty and economic freedom, which limited state involvement. They worked to secure a vote for the Middle Class and after the French Revolution, were mostly educated professionals, business people. The Middle Class and later on students. Those who were conservative in the 19th century wished to go back to the time before the French Revolution, they were traditional. They placed emphasis on the morality of the people, and the need for governments intervention. They wished to repress libreal and revolutionary ideals as well as they were mostly made up Artisticrats and supported the Old Regime.
The Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, was a meeting between European leaders and representatives in order to restore order in wake of the French Revolution. The most notable members of the congress were Prince Metternich from Austria and Alexander l from Russia. Their goal was to reestablish order and stability to Europe as it was before the French Revolution. They worked to restore legitimacy, or the rule of the original royal bloodline to the throne. They worked towards the compensation of nations affected by the French Revolution. This also meant the returning of lands conquered under the French Revolution. They worked to provide an order and balance in Europe so that no one nation was too strong. They heavily preferred more conservative values, or values that were more traditional. The Congress of Vienna ended up redrawing the map of Europe where the French lost their conquered lands. They created the Concert of Europe or a series of allineseces in which created relative peace within the contentions, As they were concertivate, the Congress of Vienna worked to quiet local and natonalistsic ideas.
Though the Congress of Vienna granted peace to Europe, during the 1830s-1840s there were some revolutions. Following the French Revolution the ideals of Nationalism and Liberalism gained popularity. Despite the Conseervative attempts through the Congress, libreal ideas spread across Europe. By 1840, the political landscape of Europe had changed and it was clear that the liberals were making headway.
Two large unification efforts took place in 19 century Europe. First the German unification we started in 1815 through the German Confederation. This created a buffer against possible friend expansion into the loose Confederation of German states. Austria did not want a United Germany, as it feared economic competition and smaller states feared Prussian domination. Prussia was a strong state with a well organized government and a strong stable economy. In 1861 William the first became the King of Prussia, he appointed Otto von Bismarck as his Chancellor. Otto von Bismarck was known as the “Iron Chancellor”, he was a nationalistic leader. Bismarck was a member of the Junker class, or the aristocratic landowning class of Prussia. He was appointed the prime minister of Prussia where he held post for over 25 years. He was the master of realpolitik, which was realistic policies based on the needs of the state. Under Bismarck Prussia was involved in 3 Wars, each war increased the power of Prussian-German States. The Danish War, the Seven Weeks War, and the Franco-Prussian war. Bismarck believed that it was up to Prussia to unite Germany, which could only be achieved through military force in war. This led him to adopt the policy of “blood and iron” which meant that expansion and unification was only through strong military conquest. Within ten years of becoming Chancellor, Bismarck had United the German states under oppression rule, which united the German Empire.
The next unification effort was the Italian Unification. Since the Middle Ages Italy had been divided into many small kingdoms, and these kingdoms did not necessarily wish for unification. Local loyalties and nationalism to local kingdoms was an obstacle to unification. Other rulers in France and Austria did not want to see a strong United Italy, and the Pope saw unification as a threat to his power. Risorgimento Resurgence was a movement for Italian Unity. These societies like Carbonari and other secret societies came together to agitate for unification. They spread the idea of unity as returning to the glory of Rome. There were three individuals that were very closely associated with Italian nationalism and unification. First, Mazzii, he was known as the “soul” of the movement and he founded the Young Italy society. His goal was to use nationalistic approaches to urge people to move towards an Italian national state. Next was Cavour who was the “brain'' he was the Prime Minister of Sardinia who, with King Emmanuel, orchestrated much of the unification. He believed in realpolitik in order to meet the needs of the state. Next was Garibaldi, he was the “Sword.” He, using the Red Shirt Volunteer Army, invaded Sicily Using guerrilla warfare. By 1860 most of Italy was unified except for Rome and Bonita, shortly after Roman Vinita followed. Victor Emmanuel II became king of the United Italy and in 1871 Rome became the capital of Italy.
The big picture of these unification efforts lies in the ability of nationalism to become a unifying force. Nationalism unifies people with common cultures and histories in order to come together and unify. Nationalism can lead to the creation of new countries. Nationalism can also act as a threat to more powerful establishments and countries. Lastly, Nationalism can also lead to conflicts and Wars. Two of the most important nationatioalist conflicts were within the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire.
Austria-Hungary was a multi-ethnic Empire: Hungary, Romania, Poland and Ukraine as well as the Czech were all within this Empire. The rise of nationalism, and the want of an independent self-government led to an uprising. These were all not successful immediately but after many years they would eventually be. In the late 1800 the desire to fight for independence continued. This sets up a stage for the first World War. In the Ottoman Empire there were many multi ethnic groups which were no longer ruled by the Ottomans. The Balkans, who were the Serbs, Greeks and Bulgarians as well as the Slavic people, wished to have their own rule within their own cultures. The first movement was Pan Slavism, which is the desire to unite all the Slavic people. Russia advocated for Pan Slavism as it weakened the Ottoman Empire and gave them a shared ally. The Greeks gained independence in 1830 after breaking away from the withering Ottoman Empire. The Serbians then gained self-rule but not Independence later on. These revolutions thoroughly affected the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman Empire was known as the “sick old man of Europe”. Nationalism was an extremely important force in 19th century Europe. It was able to pull Nations together as well as destroy Empires. Nationalism has the ability to create new nations and destroy previous Nations.
The Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the eighteenth Century. It later spread to Western Europe: Belgium, France , Germany, and then later to the United States, Japan and Russia. The Industrial Revolution refers to increased mechanicalism of production as well as the social changes that accompanied his technological shift. Some of the most contributing factors were the growth of technology, such as the spinning jenny and water frames, the use of interchangeable parts, the division of labor, the steam engine, the Agricultural Revolution and the large population growth. The Industrial Revolution can be broken up into two parts. The first Revolution was from the 17th to the 18th century in Great Britain. It focused on technologies in textile production as well as the use of steam and iron. the second. The Industrial Revolution was from the late 18th century to the 19th century. It occurred in Great Britain, the United States and Germany. It focused on the use of Steel with Bridges and tall buildings as well as combustion engines and machineries and the new use of electricity.
The Agricultural Revolution was a key factor in the Industrial Revolution. It was a revolution in farming technology with new inventions like the seed drill, Jethro Tull, the reaper, crop rotation and stop breeding. as well as the introduction of new crops like a potato. The Enclosure Movement was also a part of the Agricultural Revolution. This was when the wealthy landowners fenced off and purchased previously common land. This led to Greater productivity for Rich farmers and for smaller Farmers to lose land and their jobs. The enclosure movement, as well as the rapid automatization of farms, caused smaller Farmers to move to the city and look for work. This is called urbanization, or the rapid application of new people to urban areas. People moved for new opportunities, like the opportunity to work in a factory. This led to consumerism, which is the purchasing of goods that is not necessarily needed for survival. Back on the farms, the Agricultural Revolution let you higher profits, with more production of food, a population growth, and overall less people needed to work farms.
The Industrial Revolution did start in England, and for good reason. England's geographic location as an island nation allowed for easier trade as well as England’s role as a power source. England's natural resources like it's coal, iron, and access to sheep wool also allowed it to flourish in the Industrial Revolution. England had a large workforce due to the Agricultural Revolution. The political stability of England allowed for new innovation and the development of new technology. New technology also started the Industrial Revolution such as the steam engine which led to good transport. The railroads and steamboats helped people travel quickly and more efficiently. Lastly the economic climate of England also helped flourish the Industrial Revolution. Great Britain's economic stability from its Colonial wealth and its capital Investments allowed it to be a very wealthy Nation. Also the government's ideas on laissez faire helped for investors to build up industrial factories.
The impact of industrialization on England was vast. First new technologies like the spinning jenny, water frame and Power Loom helped to facilitate mass production. Mass production was able to increase the number of goods available as well as a lowering the prophet of said goods, which led to affordable products therefore leading to consumerism. It also led to a great increase of profits for factory owners. The new workplace of the factory replaced the previous domestic system. The domestic system, or the cottage system, was where goods were produced at home using machines powered by humans. The factory system which took over during the Industrial Revolution was where complex machines that were powered by steam or electricity were used to produce goods at a much faster rate. The Industrial Revolution caused great change in society. First the class gap greatly widened. The middle class, which is known as the bourgeoisie, had a great increase in wealth, increased leisure time, and access the division of labor. The Middle class was able to partake in consumerism, or spending money on non-essential goods. The “Cult of Domesticity” idealized women as homemakers whose main goal was to marry into a rich stable family. The middle class was mostly made up of factory managers, lawyers, doctors, merchants, teachers and other educated professionals. The working class, or the Proletariat Class, worked jobs for survival. They had few luxuries and had less of a division of labor. Women worked the same job as his men, though they were paid less.
The effects of the Industrial Revolution can be characterized into both positive and negative developments. Positive developments revolve around the new machines and methods of production created during this time. This allowed for mass production in which many goods were made in a factory setting at a fast-paced pace. This led to a population increase, where people worked and consumed. The general wealth of industrialized countries also increased during this time as more trade and more business occurred. New methods of transport like the railroad, steamship and canals were built all across industrial nations. The Industrial Revolution was also able to create jobs for many people. There were also many negative developments of the Industrial Revolution. First urbanization caused tenements and overcrowded slums that heavily affected poor communities. Without access to sanitation and sewage systems, illnesses like tuberculosis and cholera killed many. It was a great amount of pollution that started during this time as air and water was contaminated by factory production. One of the main negative components of the Industrial Revolution was the bad working conditions for the poor. The poor workers were exposed to injury, death contamination and toxins during their work. They worked long hours with no breaks and no safety precautions as it maximizes profit. Child labor was also an effect of the Industrial Revolution as poor children work to also help support their families. Child labor was caused by poverty and lack of governmental laws. Children were wanted in factories as they were more compliant, physically smaller and they worked much faster. The Industrial Revolution led to the defining of four new economic systems: capitalism, utilitarianism, socialism, and Marxism. These systems were very important in the political and economic framework of Europe and the United States moving forward.
The first economic system of the Industrial Revolution is capitalism. Capitalism was founded by Adam Smith with his work “ The Wealth of Nations”. Thomas Mathus and David Ricardo were two also important capitalists. Capitalism is an economic system based on growth through the free market. It believed in the policy of laissez-faire, or no governmental intervention in the economy. The economy was run by individual investors without regulation, as regulation would weaken the positive aspects of a free market. Individuals owned private property as well as the means of production. Capitalism is guided by the Natural Law of economy, the Law of Self-interest, and the Laws of Supply and Demand. Supply and Demand states that the “invisible hand” will control what is produced and what is consumed within the market. The Law of Competition states that there will be high-quality Goods at the lowest price. Capitalism is able to generate high-quality goods and services for fair prices, but due to capitalism there will always be unemployment and a large gap between the rich and the poor. Thomas Malthus believes that the population grows at a faster rate than food supply, and government intervention can do nothing to solve this problem. Only war and famine can restrain population growth. David Ricardo believed in the iron law of wages, which is that as population increases labor increases so wages drop. In order to solve this problem, especially the poor, so they just have less children.
Utilitarianism is the economic system developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Utilitarianism believed that capitalism was a decent system but it needed governmental support and reforms. It also believed that the true test for any institution was its usefulness. The government was to interfere in the distribution of wealth in order to help the most people. Utilitarianism believes in the “greatest good for the greatest number of people.” The government exists in order to serve the people, as believed by utiliatismitarism. John Stuart Mill was an advocate for the education of the working class as well as raising the standard of living.
The next economic system is socialism, developed by Fourier, Saint-Simon, and Robert Owen. Socialism was developed in response to the negative developments of industrialization. It believed that capitalism creates wealth that is unequally distributed. The government should increase and oversee the economy for the welfare of the people. The community or state should own all the means of production and distribution. Socialism argued that the unregulated economy would not produce and distribute enough of all necessary materials for all. Utopian socialism, developed by Robert Owen, states that if people are put in the best environment possible, they will act their best. Utopian socialism wishes for an ideal society where people share and equally benefit from labor. It is not necessarily A dependable economic model.
Marxism is an economic system developed by Karl Marx And Frederick Engels. Communism/Marxism also developed in response to the unfavorable working conditions during the Industrial Revolution. It focused on the historical struggle between those who are oppressed and those who oppress others. The Industrial Revolution made the class gap between the bourgeoisie and the Proletariat classes much wider. Marxism believed that capitalism and the Industrial Revolution allowed the rich to get richer and the poor to get poorer. The goal of Marxism was to overthrow the old capitalist system. In which the workforce would then own all production of Labor. It advocated that the workforce must rise and liberate capitalism’s chains, ending private property classes and a wage gap. Marxism also believed that the need for the government would wither away, and there would no longer be a need for a ruling class. Marxism was the first belief system in history where no class structure was needed. For people under Marxism, there would be a lack of freedom both politically and socially, and economically. Marxism’s economic theory developed by Karl Marx is often confused with Communism. Communism is an interpretation of Marxism that also includes political elements. Neither communism nor Marxism truly took off at this time. Later communist revolutions would not be pure communism, as communism and Marxism have never been certainly performed.
The negative aspects of the Industrial Revolution led to several influential reform movements. First was the reformation of working conditions. The rise of factories, unsafe conditions, and the lack of regulation led to this movement. This movement advocated to expose the requirements of the working class and encourage government intervention. Groups like the Sadler Report presented testimonies of workers to Parliament; eventually, Parliament took a more active role in the working conditions of British citizens. Next was the formation of Unions. Unions are workers associations created to protect workers and bargain for better conditions. The Combination Acts initially banned all Union activity. Still, later on, the factory Act of 1833, the Ten Hours Act, and the mines Act of 1842 were passed in response to unions’ demands. Next, the reform for public education helped create the Ragged Schools Union, a school for impoverished children. The Education Acts of 1880 and later 1902 passed requiring all students to go to school. The women's suffrage movement was a movement against “The Cult of Domesticity” and the movement for equal voting rights of women. Suffragettes used protesting and Civil disobedience to gain the right to vote. Reform movements improved economic and living conditions for the working class. Governments are also beginning to take a more active role in society and business. Lastly, Karl Marx's predictions were proved wrong, as workers did not Revolt because conditions improved.
19th Century Human Migration And The Irish Potato Famine:
In the nineteenth century, due to industrialization and a shift to capitalist economies, migration patterns changed dramatically. The number of migrants from foreign countries increased significantly. Demographic changes influenced this in both industrialized and non-industrialized nations. People left their native lands for various reasons such as work opportunities, political freedom, religious freedom, escaping oppression, famine, and lastly, poverty. Many migrants were drawn to the more industrial nations and settled in cities there, causing more urbanization. The Irish potato famine caused one great example of migration in the 19th century.
To understand the Famine, it's essential to understand the British rule in Ireland at the time. Most of Ireland was owned by the English and Anglo-Irish nobility in the eighteen hundreds, who rarely actually lived in Ireland. These predominantly Protestant landlords owned large amounts of land taken from the Irish back in the 1500s. As a result, the average farmer barely lived at a subsidence level. At the end of the 1700 Irish staged Rebellion against the British, which was not successful. This caused the British to enact Penal Laws. These laws harshly restricted the lives of the Catholic Irish. They could not educate themselves, they were not allowed to have a role in politics, they could not land, and they could not practice Catholicism. This increased resentment towards the British and Protestant governments.
The great hunger was caused by a blight that wiped out only the potato crop. The potato was the only crop affected, and all other crops were fine, but it still had a significant effect on the Irish. Because of British rule and the poverty of the Irish landowners, the potato was the only crop they could afford to purchase, as many other crops were sold to the British and exported. Many Irish cannot afford to see their families pay rent and simply survive. The British tried to enact the poor laws, which were supposed to help the Irish, but it ended up causing more to be evicted from their lands.
The impact of the great hunger on Ireland was vast. There was widespread poverty in death as the Irish were driven off their lands. Some were sent on what was known as coffin ships across the Atlantic. There was a mass migration of 4-5 million Irish people to the United States. The Irish Population dropped from 8 million people to 5 million people. The Great Hunger also created more tension between working classes and ruling classes and an anti-British sentiment that allowed the Irish to gain independence in 1921.
Imperialism l: The Making of the European Global Order:
The Age of Imperialism, as in its name, was the rush of wealthy western nations to imperialize other, less powerful and wealthy countries. To imperialise is simply to exert dominance over the political, economic and social life of another country. Imperial powers used a variety of means to gain and maintain power. First is the governmental system of a colony, in a colony a foriegn territory which is ruled directly by the imperial power. Next, the Protectorate system, where a foreign region keeps its own government and rulers, but imperial powers guide and interfere with the government. Lasty, a sphere of influence is a region or country in which imperial powers have exclusive economic trading rights.
There are several political reasons for a country to start imperializing. First was the dramatic rise of nationalism in which powerful countries strived to demonstrate their power and superiority. The pressure of competition also pushed countries to imperialize, and courtines all around the world were building overseas empires. Military security due to these new empires also played a role, US military bases and refueling stations for ships became increasingly necessary to protect one's home country as well as to show its power. A country would use these bases and its military powers to control the seas, or to protect their trading interests and empires, which was another great political reason to imperialize.
Imperialism was also heavily affected by economic pressures. The needs of the Industrial Revolution, that is a need for raw materials and natural resources grew greatly at this time. In order for industrialized nations to produce goods, they needed the materials to do so, such as cotton for textile production. In order to gain these raw materials and natural resources, cheap labor was needed, therefore countries were able to imperialize and exploit other countries for this labor. Wealthy countries also sought to invest their profits into creating new factories, railroads and infrastructure in foreign countries which would in turn generate more wealth for them. The expansion into a new, controlled market was also a cause of imperialism. Overall, the ability for an imperial power to gain more wealth for its nation was a large factor in imperialism.
Though politics and economics affected imperialism, so were the social aspects of imerlaisizing. The “white man’s burden” was an ethnocentric view held by many imperialists where they believed that it was only right to civilize and educate forgin natives, who they believed to be savages. The need to spread ideas and cultures, like the spreading of Christsianity was especially prevalent. Missionaries worked to spread and Christinaze many nations. The idea of Social Darwinism, or that only the best cultures and best races survive, fit very well within the racism and ethnocentrism that helped to fuel and justify imperialism.
Imperialism In Southeast Asia, Oceania, and the Pacific:
Beginning in the 17th century imperialism began in the Southeast Asian and the Pacific islands. The lands provided by these islands were perfect for the establishment of plantations that grew sugar, rubber, cocca, and cotton. These islands also brought imperial powers cheap materials for low costs and also a large, cheap labor force. Laborers were many times exploited and the native country rarely saw a gain from the presence of imperial powers.
Siam, which is now modern day Thailand was able to remain independent even though imperial powers took its neighboring countries. Siam did this by remaining completely neutral, for even though the Europans wanted to imperialize, they did not wish to enter into conflict with other imperial powers in order to do so. Siam was located between Barma and Indochian, in which case Britain and France competed for resources on both sides of the country. Siam declared itself a neutral zone, and with the help of a strong leader opened up its trade to both Britain and France. Siam adopted western principles and ideas making them seem as more equal in the European eyes. Siam was able to avoid imperialization for it stayed neutral, allowed for trade, and adopted western ideas.
The Malay Peninsula was taken by the British due their large deposits of tin and rubber. The British built the Suez Canal to initiate trade in the area. The British wanted a trading port between India and China. Within the Malay Peninsula was the ship harbor and trading port of Singapore. Singapore existed as a major shipment and trade center in Southeast Asia. Many Chinese immigrants migrated for work in the Malay Peninsula and In Singapore. In Indochina itself, the French had control. Indochina contained modern day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The French, in what is modern day Vietnam, helped the Nguyen Dynasty rise to power as they ruled Indochina through direct colonial rule. The French had a major trading monopoly on rice, as they did not allow any local industries. In Java, imperialism came through through the Dutch East India Company as early as the 1600s. The Dutch took Java through its port cities, and moved in to hold influence over many Indonesian Islands. The Dutch made up a large percentage of the Indonesian island's populations. The imperialism of the Indonesian Islands by the Dutch became a prototype for the British Imperialism of India.
As early as the 2nd century Europeans speculated about what they referred to as the “unknown southern land”, or Australia. The Dutch were the first to arrive in Australia during the early 16th century, as part of their quests for the spices of Southeast Asia. When arriving in Australia, they found barren, unsuitable land. But, in 1770, British Captain James Cook arrived on the Eastern Coast of Australia. Here, he found the lands to be plentiful and reported that Australia was suitable for settlement. The British wanted to take Australia as they wished to conquer the new, unexplored land, bring more power to Britain, use the land for agriculture and sheep herding, to spread Christsianity. Britain also had an overcrowded justice system, with too many people in their prisons, and making Australia a penal colony solved this issue. When James Cook first arrived, the settlers and himself lived in relative peace with the nomadic Aboriginal, native Austrlaans. But after increased settlement, the British passed the Aboriginal peoples into harsher, dryer lands. The spread of European diseases killed about half of the Aborigial peoples. Those who survived had to face the “Policy of Assimilation.” Here, native children would be taken from their parents and either placed in orphanages or with white families. Almost all of the Aboriginal culture was lost and the generations affected were known as the “lost generation.”
U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific Islands:
In the Pacific, the United States engaged in Imperialism. First, the U.S. acquired the Philippines as a result of the Spanish American war. Due to the US imperialism, conrovery sppreaked about the moral implications related to imperlaising. The U.S claimed that their imperialistic efforts were rooted in their need to “uplift” and Christinze the filipinos. The natives in the Philippines rose up in order to gain independence and to end the exploitation. They lost as the United States put down the resistance efforts. At this time in the occupation, the Filipinos were promised that the United States would gradually lift their influence and The United States improved the infrastructure of the Philippines while it was occupied.
In the 1820s, during the emergence of the Sugar trade, U.S businessmen established plantations on the Pacific island of Hawaii. The U.S. men gradulary gained both political and economic power on the island. These businessmen started to demand that Hawaii was to be annexed into the United States. The United States overthrew Hawaiian queen Liliuokalani. The president of the Dole sugar and fruit plantations became the president of Hawaii after it was annexed into the United States.
The British Raj:
In the 1600s, British investors were granted a charter by the British Crown to start a trading company, this became the British East India Company. This company established a government granted monopoly on all English trade in Asia, with the Crown regulating trade as they see fit. Over the next 100 years the Company gained great influence, both political and economic, in the Indian subcontinent. The main trading focus was on pepper and cotton due to the needs of the Industrial Revolution. The Company gained entrance into India by maily taking advantage of India's disunity. India was a vast nation that encompassed many different religions, languages and cultures. These many differences, as well as India’s geography, made unification and the rise of nationalism difficult. The British East India Company also relied on bribes, spies and traitors within the Indian government in order to gain an advantage. The Company was so powerful that it interfered in local affairs, even though it was not a governmental authority. The British Company has control of the seas, a great military advantage, resources and supplies.
Initially, the British East India Company was interested in carrying and selling Indian goods over to Europe, especially spices and textiles. But as England became industrialized, the Company's forces changed. Indian goods were now being sold in England and the English had a monopoly on all of India’s markets, both imports and exports. Meaning, that Indians were only allowed to receive and purchase British goods. At this time, India’s manufacturing became exploited by the British, as they faced the fast and cheap production of cash crops and natural resources. The Indian economy became completely reliant on British interference.
By the 19th century, the British in India shared a general disregard for Indian values, customs and cultures, which angered the Indian population. In response to this the Sepoy Mutiny occured. In 1857 the Indian uprising of the Sepoy Mutiny occurred with the first battle being fought in the war for independence. The Mutiny started as a result of Britain's disregard of Indian religions, as the artillery casing on ammunition were cased with pig and cow fats. The infantrymen were required to bite off this casing, which is neither allowed for Hindus and Muslsims. The Sepoy Mutiny created a unity between Muslims and Hindus in order to rebel against British Rule. One particularly significant leader is the Indian hero Mangal Pandey. In 1858, the British put down the rebellion. The British Crown blamed the British East India Trading Company for the uprising, which caused the Crown to place India under a direct colonial ruling. India has become the “jewel of the British crown,” due to the economic profits produced by the subcontinent.
Some Indians saw the benefits of British rule and took advantage of the new educational opportunities presented by the Western ideals, for example, Indian historian Romesh Dutt. Other Indians resented British rule and responded, like historian Ram Mohum Roy, with emerging nationalism. Many Nationalists initially preferred a reform to revolution, which would contain the British assisting India into gradual independence. The Indian National Congress was formed. It gave expression to the nationalistsic feeling, it wanted Indians to share in their governing process. Most members of the Congress were moderates and had faith in the British government and their promises of gradual independence. Radicals were displeased with these moderate views as they rejected British culture and sought for pride in their Indian culture.
The “Scramble for Africa”: European Imperialism in the African Continent:
In the 19th century, Europeans were interested in Africa for several reasons. These bring the need for more land, power, natural resources, trade and markets, and cheap labor. Prior to the Era of New Imperialism, Africa was very different. First, by the 1800s, the West African slave trade was declning and by the 1880s, slavery has been abolished in nations all around the world. This ended one of the major Euroiepans interested in Africa, but this did not mean that Europeans did not find a way to imperialise. Prior to imperialism only the coast of Africa was explored, and Africa was referred to as the “Dark Continent.” Journalists and explorers like David Livingstone and Henry Stanely only increased European interest inAfrica. King Leopold of Belgium also wished to get involved in the exploration of Africa and sent Stanley to do so. As other European nations become increasingly more interested in Africa, it is clear that conflict is growing. As a result, Bismark calls the Berlin conference in 1884 to settle how Europeans would carve up Africa and reduce their conflict with other Europeans.
Britain, France, Germany, Berlin and the Dutch all wanted land, power, natural resources, and raw materials from Africa. In order to do this they divided up Africa among themselves to avoid conflicts also amongst themselves. Euroepans get Africans to sign phony and fake treaties, use their advanced military technologies and work to divide Indian tribal nations in order to conquer them. Europeans played rival groups against each other through ethic wars which made conquering them much easier. Europeans were almost always victorious in their battles as they had better weapons like the cannon, machine guns, steamships, had access to more resources, better organization and understood the physical and tribal geography of Africa. Europeans set up three different types of colonies. First, a White Dominion or White Domination. This is a type of settler colony where European settlers made up large percentages of populations, like in Australia and Canada. Next was a Contested Settler Colony where the minority European population lived among the natives. Lastly, a Tropical Dependency colony was when a small number of European settlers ruled over a large number of natives. This was a colony of imperialism and exploitation, where there was no gain for settlers, like in India. With the exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia, Europeans had taken over all of the African continent by 1914.
In South Africa, Imperialism was a little different. In the 17th-18th centuries Dutch people began to permanently settle in Africa with the foundation of Cape Colony in 1652. These Dutch farmers were known as Boers. These Boers established and expanded their territories into the interior of Africa and entered into conflict with the Xhosa tribe. As a result of the Naploolic wars, the Dutch were forced to give their South African Colonies to the British. The Boers, who were resentful of forein rule, moved up into the African interior. The Great Trek was the movement of thousands of Boers to avoid British rule. After conflicts with the Zulu tribes, the Bores move into their own territories. In the mid 1860s diamonds and gold were found in South Africa. Causing the British to be even more interested in South Africa. The British invaded Zululand in 1879 and through the Zulu-Anglo wars the Zulu heavily resisted British rule. Despite fierce resistance and wars, the British were able to defeat the Zulu people. In 1899, the Anglo-Boer wars, between the British and the earlier Dutch settlers broke out when the Boers rebelled against the British. The British were able to put down both the Zulu people and the Boers, and take control of South Africa, where they created the Union of South Africa.
Africans did not just accept European rule, though the Europeans were considerably more powerful than them. The battle of Isandhlwanw was a great battle within the Zulu-Anglo war that occurred in South Africa. It was a great victory for the Zulu people and a harsh loss for the British. The Maji Maji Rebellion was another act of resistance. The uprising of 1905 was the most serious challenge to German colonial rule. Led by King Ngwale, holy water and spiritual practices were used to help challenge the Germans. The Germans did put down this rebellion. The Ashanti peoples defended their lands and trade interests on the Gold Coast, but were eventually put down by the British in 1874. The Battle of Adowa was another great act of African Resistance. Ethiopia and Liberia both remained independent and resisted imperialism through this battle. Samori Ture was a King and Military leader of Guinea and Mali. He worked to resist French Imperialism but he was captured in 1900. Africans stood up to Europeans in order to protect themselves and their lands even though they were less powerful.
Imperialism II: Civilizations in Crisis:
Imperialism can be broken down into two different segments. This “second wave” of imperialism, though is a continuation of the first, happens in different areas of the world and for different reasons. This imperialism discusses the breakdown of China and the Ottoman Empire, but why the Japanese were successful and became an imperial power themselves.
Imperialism In China:
Imperialism within China started with the decline of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty was also known as the “Manchu Dynasty” as it was ruled by the Manchu people who were en ethic minority in China. The Qing dynasty was initially a time of stability and prosperity. They were agricultural sound, with a good economy and kept a favorable balance of trade with the British. Overtime, tensions arose between China and the West. The Chinese exported more than they imported like silk, porcelain and tea. They only allowed trade in certain ports like Canton, which angered the British. The Europeans desperately wished to trade with China, especially the British. China resisted, as ethnocentrism pushed them to not want important European goods. Overtime, China did trade in return for silver. This flood of silver disrupted trade. The British started to trade opium, a highly addictive drug, for silver. Causing opium to flood into China and silver to flow out. This caused the Opium Wars.
As the British continued to smuggle opium into China, Chinese officials begged them to stop. The opium trade halted the Chinese Economy as the working class was no longer working but still spending money, dissolving the economy. The Chinese banned the consumption of opium, killing those who sold and used it, as well destroying ships that carried it. The British and Chinese parriaplated in a series of battles over this but the British won, due to their superior technologies causing them not to be defeated. This led to the Unequal Treaties which contained the Treaty of Nanking and Tientsin. The Treaty of Nanking. These treaties required the Chinese to pay reparations for the war debt, open their trade into more cities as well as ceede Hong Kong to the British as a colony. The Treaty of Tientsin allowed for extraterritoriality, which is legislation in which British citizens of China were not subjected to Chinese law and instead will be tried and subjected to British law. Because of the work of the British, other countries desired to get involved to trade with China. The United States issued the Open Doors Policy that stated that all countries should be able to trade with China. In the 1900’s China was formally divided into Spheres of Influence by European powers.
Chinese Self Strengthening Movement:
One of the main reasons that China was imperialized was because of their refusal to industrialize and modernize. The Chinese heavily valued tradition and because of their ethnocentrism felt their culture and methods were superior to that of the West. Though they were not as technologically advanced, they still refused to modernize. Empress CiXi was a Dowager Empress who was very traditional but still expected some reforms. The Chinese Self Strengthening Movement was a movement to update the Chinese Military, education system and manufacturing. Not much success resulted from the movement and there were mixed results amongst the people and the government. The Taiping Rebellion consisted of peasants that worked to overthrow the Qing Dynasty as they wished to insist on new reforms. These being social equality and to Christizinze China. It was caused by massive poverty and corruption within the Qing Dynasty. The revolution was started by HongXiuquan who received a mystical vision to save the world. The revolt lasted for 14 years and had huge casualties and damage for both sides. The British and French took up arms in order to help the QIng remaining in power in order so they could continue to trade. Overall, there were 20-30 million deaths, a great description of lands, poverty and famine. The 100 Days of Reform was a movement of Young Emperor Guangxu while the formal Empress was away. The reform consisted of overhauling pervouse systems like School systems, economic systems and governmental systems. Guanxu was eventually arrested and killed, then all reforms were then undone. The last effort of resistance was the Boxer Rebellion, which was performed by the Society of Harmouse Fits. They were a secret society of martial artists. Their goal was to remove the “forign devils.” Beijing, where many Europans live, was under siege and many Europas were attacked. It provoked Chinese nationalism and a growing resentment towards the Qing Dynasty.
Imperialism and Japan’s Reaction:
Japan used to be under Feudal systems during the Tokugawa rule. Here, though there was an emperor in rule, the Shoguns, military leaders, held power. In the 1500s, Japan was unified under the Tokugawa rule and experienced Pax Tokugawa. This was a period of emphasis in intellect and cultural advancement, internal commerce and Neo-Confucianism. The Edict of 1635 was passed in relation to the spread of Christainity in Japan. This Edictic was an act of self imposed isolation that severely resisted external trade only to the Dutch and into only certain ports. During this period of isolation, the rest of the world rapidly industrialized and Western powers imperialised.
Japanese Isolation ended in 1853 as United State’s President M. Fillmore sent Commodore Perry and a fleet of warships to ask to open trade. The United States wanted to boast their superior technology and intimate the Japanese to trade. In 1854 the Treaty of Kanagawa granted the United States to trade in three Japanese ports. This welcomed other nations to also trade with Japan. This prompted Japan to rapidly industrialize. This is called the Meiji Restoration or the Enlightened Japanese rule. This was a period in Japan of dramatic idustrilzayiion, dramatic modernization, and dramatic westernization. The Japanese accepted Western ideas such as in the Constitution of 1889 which limmitec the Emperor and created the Japanese Diet, or the Legislative Branch. The British inspired House of Peers was developed. There was also a great push to both hold on to their traditional culture but accept the new Western Ideas.
The Japanese, because of this rapid progress, entered a period of Militarism and Imperialism. Militarism is the emphasis and the glorification of the military. Japan had a need for natural resources, just like the West, due to industrialization. This caused them to wish to imperialise. The Sino-Japanese war was a war with China for Taiwan. Though China was larger, they were still defeated by the Japanese. The Russo-Japanese War was a war with Russia over Manchuria and Korea. Both Manchrua and Korea had the natural resources that Japan needed. Japan won this war, which was the first time that an Asian country had defeated a European Country in war. This led to the Annexation of Korea which caused nations around Japan and in the West to view Japan as a serious threat and power. Japan had arrived on the global stage as an industrial and imperial power.
The Ottoman Decline: The “Sick Man of Europe”
From the 1700s and onwards the Ottoman Empire entered into a period of decline. Factors that contributed was the imperial overreach, which was the overexpansion of the empire where the government could no longer continue to uphold maintenance of it. The refusal to modernize, the lack of cultural unity and nationalism, the corruption in government and the overall weakness of trade, economy and government all caused the Ottoman Empire to decline. Europeans notice the weakening empire and push in, Austria pushed into what is now Hungry and Russia expands into Caucasian countries. Individual European countries turn to help the Ottoman Empire in order to stop rival countries from imperialising. The English helped to defend the Ottomans, but it only made the empire look weaker as it had to rely on foreign assistance.
Though the Ottomans lost several territories, like that of Greece, the Balkans, the loss of Egypt will be one of the most important for it and the world. In 1805, Muhammid Ali freed Egypt from Ottoman rule, he was known as the “Father of Modern Egypt.” He attempted to modernize Egypt up until his death in 1939. Ali inisted political and economic reforms, established a public works program, modernized the Egyptian army, and modernized the agruulureal system. Under Ali’s rule, Egypt expands to the point that it becomes a threat to the original Ottoman Empire that it broke free from. The Khedives, Ali’s successor, became the official rules of Egypt up until a military coup in 1952. The contraction of the Suez canal was immensely significant for global imperialism. This canal connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. By 1875, the British had purchased most of the financial shares of the canal giving them great economic and political power within Egyption affairs. The Khedives became a puppet government in which the British gained more control. The Mahdist Revolt is a result of Sudan against Egyptian rule. It was a jihad-like war with the goal of ending Europan controll in Eugeto and purifying Islam. It was not successful as British troops put down the uprising.
The Ottomans tried to enact reforms in order to buy the declining empire more time. The Tanzimat Reforms were a series of reforms that were based on a Western model. It revised the education system, Westernized the military, established state and postal lines, included legal reforms and upgrades to infrastructure. These reformers were able to hold off the threat of imperialism, they did threaten the power of the government. Later rulers, like Abdul Hamid, reversed reforms in fear of losing power. Factions arise within the Ottoman Empire but it does manage to remain together until World War l.
Russian Revolution - Long Term Causes:
In order to understand the Russian Revolution is it important to both understand the previous rule of the Czars as well as the long term developments in Russia that lead to the string of several revolutions. As well as the fact that the Russian Revolution was three separate revolutions all in a short period: the Revolution of 1905, the February Revolution and the October Revolution. The rule of Peter The Great in the late 1600s was the beginning of the internal fight between the traditional Salvic culture and the rapidly industrializing West. Catherine The Great was an Enlightenment despot that ruled after Peter, she worked to Westernize Russia. Nicholas l was an Absolute ruler that followed Catherine. He despised the Westernization of Russia, the movement for a new Constitution, and he believed in extreme censorship. This led to the revolt of the Decemberists, who were a group of radicals who shared enlightenment beliefs. Nicholas’s son, Alexander the Second called for the Crimian war and war for the industrialization and Westernization of Europe, but he was assassinated by radical revolutionaries. Alexander's son, Alexander the Third killed his fathers assassins and rejected all reform and Westernantion. This led to the rule of Nicholas the Second, who would be the Czar of the Russian Revolution and the last Czar to rule.
There were several long term causes of the Russian Revolution that are important to understand for they add to the immediate causes. Russia's lack of industrialization was a huge factor in the evental revolution. Russia was behind in political and social ideas, as they were very late to abolish Serfdom and had a weak military without Western technology. Russia’s climate and size also affected its industrialization. The working conditions of the peasants gave rise to the revolution. The Emancipation Manifesto freed the serfs from their lords, but these now peasants had to buy back their land causing them extreme debt. The pesnast grew angry at the upper classes and the government. The peasants experienced extreme poverty, famine, disease and hard labor for very little in return. The working conditions of workers and Russia’s overall low living standards helped fuel the upcoming revolution. Workers, and most people, had no political rights as they worked dangerous jobs with long hours and little pay. The process of Russification is the process of uniting all of the very diverse Russia under one culture, religion and language. This also included the process of removing ethnic groups, which created more nationalism in these individual ethnic groups. Both the Crimain and Russo-Japanese war defeats showed the weakness of the Russian Army and their poor leadership. It proved that modern warfare can not be completed without industrialization.
Russian Revolution - Revolution of 1905:
The Russo-Japanese war in 1904 was the beginning leadup to the Russian Revolutions. The war was a humiliating defeat for Russia, as a European nation lost to an Asian nation for the first time. It showed the true weakness and lack of industrialization in Russia. In 1905, Bloody Sunday occurred. Here, Russia’s workers and poor gathered in front of the Czar’s Winter Palace in order to peacefully protest their conditions. They looked up to the Czar at this point and asked for reforms in order to improve their lives. The Czar was not at his palace and the Palace guard took arms against the protestors shooting and killing many. This led to widespread anger and distrust in the Czar. This culminated in the Revolution of 1905. The October Manifesto was a list of demands to the Czar from the people. It included the creation of the Duma, which is a legislative branch that would share the power of the Czar and extend it to the people. The Duma lasted only two sessions, or about two months before it was dissolved by Nicholas ll. Nicholas introduced the Stolypin reforms in 1906 to help the sufferings of the peasants. It included economic reforms that allowed peasants to claim their land. This led to the rise of the Kulas, or very rich peasants that kept other peasant families poor. This led to the rate of agricultural production to increase in Russia. At this time, the health of Alexei, the only heir of the Czars was rapidly decreasing due to his hemophilia. The influence of Rasputin on the Czar and his wife Alexandra increased the distrust of the nation. Rasputin was a mystic who claimed to help the young heir and assist in the rule of Russia.
The Russian Revolution - February Revolution:
In 1914, World War One broke out across Europe. Due to Russia’s alliances they were obligated to become involved even though they lacked the Western technology. Russia experiences huge casualties and losses. There is great wartime misery and food shortages, contributing more to the low quality of life in Russia. These all lead to the second Russian Revolution: The February Revolution. The misery of World War One led to the Petrograd Strikes. The lack of fuel and food caused extended suffering of the people. The Russian Soldiers join in the protests effectively shutting down the whole cities. Soviets, or councils formed and took over the local city governments. This forced Nicholas ll to abdicate and give up his rule as a Czar. Nichloas would be the last Czar to ever rule Russia. After abdication a provisional government was created which was led by Kerensky and the moderates who were liberals.
Russian Revolution - The October Revolution and Civil War
Lenin, a radical politician who was previously banished, returns to Russia in wake of the Provisional Government. He promises “Peace, Land and Bread” meaning to remove Russia from World War One, redistibute the land and wealth back to the people and to provide the people of Russia with food. Lenin also promised the “Power of the Soviets'' or the government of the people. The Bolsheviks, or the sociality/commuinst party led by Lenin seized control of Russia through a Coup, becoming known as the October Revolution. This led to the Civil War in 1918.
The Civil War of 1918 was where the Red, the communists fought against the Whites, loyalists, the roylatisis, the Allies and the ethnic groups. The people's support shifts to the Bolsheviks, and despite famine and debt the Bolsheviks win. The royal family of the Czars was executed under Lenin's command. Lenin quickly adapted the policy of “War Communism'' and other socialistic policies. The Cheka, or the secret police that looked for anti-communist were establied as Lennis socialistic dictaorship unfolded. The Communist party was officially founded under a one party dictatorship led by Lenin. The official creation of the U.S.S.R occurred in which the Union of the Soviet Socialiot Republics was formed in 1923 and it existed up to 1989.
Lenin’s Rule In Russia:
Though Lenin ruled with communism, it was not the original Marxist ideology. Karl Marx believed that history is based between the “haves” and the “haves not.” And, that the workers should revolt and take over all the means of production, in which they will create a classless society in which the government will wither away. That is not what Lenin believed in. Lenin believed in creating a socratic society that should be immediately industrialized through the state, but eventually will develop into communism.
Lenin created the “Dictatorship of the Proletariat.” Here he renamed the Bolshevik party to the Communist party where he established “War Communism.” This is a policy in which all farmers work their lands and the government redistributes the grain all around Russia. Lenin created a dictatorship through the Communist party. This policy was not liked by several members of society and did not help considerably with agricultural production. Lenin seized the large businesses like the factories and the banks. Lenin opposed all religion and nationalized all Church lands. In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Lenin removed Russia from World War One but large portions of land was lost to Germany.
The N.E.P., or the New Economic Policy was developed by Lenin in 1921 in order to help with the great scarcity of goods, as War Communism was not working. The New Policy set socialtsic economic policies but allowed for some capitalism. Lenin made sure that the government owned all large businesses but allowed for the private ownership of smaller businesses. Allowing peasants to sell all surplus that executed a quota. By the mid 1920s Russia had reached pre-war levels of production and greatly improved the Russian economy.
Lenin officially developed the U.S.S.R or the Union of the Soviet Socialiot Republics in 1923. Peasants were able to vote for local Soviets, or councils. Republics were set up all around the country that allowed for some autonomy. Lenin allowed for the recognition of a muliti-cultruaral U.S.S.R and ethnic tolerance in the nation. Lenin promised the “Supreme Soviet'' which was a legislative branch elected by the people but controlled by the Communit party. In 1924 Lenin died. After a power struggle Stalin emerges as a leader of the Soviet Union.
World War One - Long Term Causes:
The underlying causes of World War One can be completed into the acronym “M.A.I.N.”. Meaning, militarism, alliances, imeraliamism, and nationalism. Militarism can be defined as the glorification of the military; or making the military considered more important in a nation's society. At this time, many European countries began to set national policies that expanded and strengthened their militaires. This resulted in what is called an Arms Race, meaning that neighboring countries race to stockpile and rapidly develop their militaries. This caused fierce competition between Germany and Great Britain/France. This created great distrust and suspicion among neighboring countries causing a rise in tensions. The Allies that existed in Europe at this time were also a factor in the start of the World War. In an alliance countries agree to help each other if they are attacked. As a result, tensions grow larger and local conflicts on the border grow more complex increasing the chance of war. The Allies in WW1 were the Triple Alliances and the Triple Entente. Imperialism is the next long term cause of World War One. European powers were trapped in fierce competition for colonies, resources and new trading markets. Great Britain and France do not want Germany to gain more colonies and therefore gain power. Therefore, Britain and France develop strategies that result in rivers and distrust amongst nations. Last Nationalism, as it can either be a unifying force of a dissolving force. Pan Slavism, or the movement to unite all Slavic peoples was a great dividing force of nationalism.
The environment that existed in the Balkans was another factor in the outbreak of World War One. As the Ottoman Empire started to collapse, many Balkan nations gained independence. The Balkans is a region with many different ethnic and religious groups. At the beginning of the 20th century this included: Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, European Turkey, and Serbia. Also at this time the Austrian-Hungarian Empire held control over the Slavic nation of Bosnia-Herzegovina which led to disciunetent among Serbians who wished to continue Pan Slavism and free their fellow Slavic nation. This area was known as the “Powder Keg '' as due to the rising nationalism any small conflict could set off a large-scale movement in the area. The Black Hand was a serbian natioanlistis group that wanted Pan Slavism especially for those in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In 1914, Gacrillo Princip, a member of the Black Hand, assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria Hungary. This is the immediate cause of World War One.
Beginnings Of World War One:
Following the assaisnation of the Austrian-Hungarian Archduke, Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum, or a condition that if not filled will be enforced with violence. Serbia was required to put an end to all anti-Australian sentiment in their nation. Serbia did not accept any of these conditions. Germany, who was previously allied with Austria-Hungary, offered a “blank check” or an offer of great support to Austria to take action against Serbia. As a result, Austria declared War on Serbia. Russia, who was the “champion of the Slavs' ' began to mobilize their army to protect Serbia. Therefore Germany declared war on Russia. France, allied with Russia, took this as an opportunity to take revenge for Germany's winnings during the Franco-Prussian War. Upset that France did not remain neutral, Germany declared War on France. As of this point, Italy and Britain were neutral but, in order for the Germans to attack France they would need to carry out the “Schlieffen Plan.” This required Germany to march through and occupy the neutral state of Belgium. Britain signed an agreement to protect Belgium’s neutrality, now causing Britain to declare war on Germany. Initially, both sides of the war thought that what was then known as the Great War, or the War to End All Wars would be over quickly. But, because of new technologies, trench warfare, costly battles and the involvement of colonies and nations around the world, this would become a several years war where “total war” is enacted. This is known as when all citizens of a nation contribute to the war effort in any way possible, and all recoressed are dedicated to the war effort.
World War One: A Global Conflict:
In Europe, the war split into three fronts, or places of battle. First the Western Front which was fought mostly on Northern France with the Allies against the Germans. This began in 1914 when Germany put the Schifflin plan into action, or when Germany invaded Belgium. These battles are slow and stationary, due to the fact that trench warfare is the main type of combat. Trench Warfare consists of two sides digging trenches in order to protect from fire, and the land in between being known as “no man's land.” Battles like the battle of Marne, Verdun and Somme had huge rates of casualties on both sides, and little was gained from a winned battle. The Eastern Front was mostly fought in Western Russia, but with some attacks along the Balkans with Austria. The Germans crushed the Russians at the battles of Tannenberg causing mass august of War time Misery that would be an added factor in the Russian Revolution. With Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire allied together, Russia was effectively cut off from its allies in the West. Internal Problems in Russia like the innaffencencey of Czarist rule, famine, poverty, protest, combined with wartime debt and a lack of surplus lead to Russia’s withdrawal in 1918 after their defeat in 1916. This occurred under Lenin during the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On the Italian Front or the Southern Front, Italy and Austria primarily fought. Italy who had originally remanded nretual had switched sides to the Triple Allies in 1915 in hopes of gaining war in the Ottoman Empire and Africa.
In the Middle East, in the Gallipoli peninsula the Ottoman Empire worked to close off the Turkish straits, dividing Russia of its needed supplies. Under Winston Churchhill, the British launched the Invasion of Gallipoli, which was located southwest of Istanbul to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war. This was a humiliating defeat for Britain as half of the ANZAC troops, or soldiers from New Zealand and Australia had died. In Turkey, a great genoice occurred. Turkey wanting to purge the Christsians from its Islamic state had killed more than two million Christsian Armenians living in the region. Turley aslos used this as a minuover to anger Russia that was Christian. In Arabia, revolts led by a British T.E. Lawrence were orchestrated to gain Arab support against the Ottomans. Lawrence of Arabia inspired Arabian princes to revolt against Ottoman rule. Between 1917-1918 the Arabs aided the British in order to destroy the remains of the Ottomans.
Also in the Middle East, the invasion of Palestine and the Capture of Jeruslaum was a major development in the Middle East. Nearing the end of the war the Arabs expected self determination, or self government, as they aided the British in defeating the Ottomans. But, in 1917 the British had issued the Balfour Declaration which promised a Jewish homeland in the holy land for their help in the war. Therefore, during the war the British made two contradicting promises. But, the British also signed a treaty with the French during the course of the war dividing the Middle Eastern lands of the fallen Ottoman Empire, making three contradicting treaties by the British.
The imperial domains of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada declare war on Germany and the Central Powers as they send troops and resources to their mother European powers. This extends the reach of the war globally. Britain and France mobilized their troops in South Asia and Africa. Some battles even occurred in Africa, like the battle of Togoland as the allies wished to conquer German colonies. Japan joined the Allies in hopes of gaining German Pacific territories. Siam, modern day Thailand and China also support the Allies.
The war extended into international waters which was a driving force for America's entrance to the war. World War One became a large battle for control of the sea. Surface fleets were timeconsimng and largely ineffective in sea battles. The German submarines or the German U-Boats were a major threat to the Allies. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, in which they would attack all boats including cargo and passenger boats, was a main factor that led up to the U.S. entrance in the war.
Originally, the United States adopted a policy of noninvolvement in the conflict overseases. American business was sold to both sides of the wars, allies and Central Powers alike. But, as German unrestricted submarine warfare continued, the United States passed stern warning for it to stop, especially when involving civilian vessels. Due to a successful British blockade of supplies, Germany continues this unrestricted submarine warfare, effectively sinking the passenger turned cargo ship the Lusitania. The Lusitania was en route to Britain with several Americans onboarded when it was sunk by German U-Boats. This was a compelling factor to engage the U.S. in war, but it wasn't the greatest. In 1917 the British intercepted a German notice from forign Minister Zimmerman. This becomes known as the Zimmerman Note. It called for Mexico to support Germany and invade the United States, in hopes to get back some of the lost lands. This caused the United States to enter into World War One in April of 1917.
The Treaty of Versailles and the Paris Peace Conference (Effects Of WW1):
The Paris Peace Conference was a confidence amongst 34 nations affected by World War One to determine the terms on which it would end. This included the “Big Three'': Wilson from the United States, Clemence from France and Lloyd from Britain. The goal of the Paris Conference was to end the war and to decide what would be done with Germany. The United States through Wilson believed in “Peace Without Victory” in order to create a Europe without exalting the victories and punishing the losers. On the other end of that spectrum, France wanted to thoroughly punish Germany. Wilson from the United States proposed his “Fourteen Points” on how to arrange the end of the war. Its goal was to create fair trade, establish peace, prevent another war and to make the world safe for democracy. Wilson tgrougly believed in “Peace without Victory '' as a way to end the War. Wilson's Fourteen points had terms that included the banning of secret treaties, free seas and free trade, arms reduction in all nations, decolonization, self determination of colonies and the formation of a League of Nations. The League of Nations would serve to prevent future war and settle disputes between nations.
The Treaty of Versaille was the final agreement in which World War One Ended. It included the end of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire into smaller, independent nations based on ethnic batteries. These new nations included Czechoslovakia, Lithuania and Estonia. It included the formation of the League of nations. As well as the introduction of the Mandate System in which Europeans who revvioced colonies from the fall of the Ottoman Empire were to help prepare these nations for self determination. But, the most important terms of the Treaty were that of Germany. These required Germany to assume the “War Guilt Clause” in which Germany takes responsibility for all the damages of the War. Germany no longer allowed an air force or a navy, and had a maximum number of soldiers allowed. Germany will lose all of its colonies and lose some of its territory in Europe. Germany will also be required to pay billions of dollars in war reparations. These terms are very severe punishments for Germany and cripple its economy. These terms leave nations like Britain and France happy with new territories, but upset Germany, Italy and Japan.
The long term effects of WW1 are vast. The Austrian Hungarian Empire is dismantled and separated, as well as the Ottoman Empire which no longer exists. The League of Nations is taken from Wilson's Fourteen Points and created, the United States doesn't join. There is a great loss of life as millions perished in the war, espcessaily in Russia. A flu epidemic cranes in the wake of the war, known as the Spanish flu. The previous war economies of many nations started to enter a decline. The Mandate system is put into effect and many African and Middle Eastern countries have rising nationalism. The Mandate system allowed relative control of nations so that they may be prepped for independence. The Middle East became divided amongst Britain and France. The British have control over Palestine, Iraq and Jordan. The French gained control of Algeria, Lebanon and Syria as a result of the Mandate System. The Balford declaration divided Palestine as a home for the Jews, upsetting the Islamic Arabs. Suffrage is granted to women in several countries due to their efforts in the war. After World War One, the wake of the World was left on an economic decline and with many unable social and political problems.
The Armainian Genocide:
As World War One raged on, the events that had secretly unfolded in the Ottoman Empire were horrific. In Turkey, which was a part of the aging Ottoman Empire, several different races existed. The Armianins were a group of causcasisan Christians that had ethnic history in the area for hundreds of years. For about a year from 1915-1917, the Turkish government rolled out an operation to end the Armenian race and clear them out of the Islamic nation of Turkey. This did not happen overnight, as there was a gradual buildup of prejudice that led to the racial cunning of the Chritsian Armenians.
In the late 1800s, Turkish programs fascinated under the Young Turks began to unify the nation through a process called Turkification. This means assimilating all members of Turkey with one language, culture and religion. During World War One, these programs the Turkeys prejudice escalated. Here, the Turkish government followed a plan to persecute, deporte and ultimately massacre over 1.5 Million Armenians. Arminaisn were forced to leave their homes and trek through the desert, dying of exposure and starvation in massive amounts. Americans were drowned in large groups as well as burned alive in large numbers. The Turks would also fille hundreds of Armiansn into caves, where they started brush fires that would asphyxiate the Arminans killing them in masses. This is said to be one of the inspirations for Hitlers use of the gas chambers in the holocost.
The Turks followed out these brutal plans as they gradually began to distrust and despise the Chritsian Armenians. The Armainssn were many times economically better off than many of the Turks despite extra taxes and bans on certain jobs. The Amriansns were also more likely to side with Russia as both were Christian. Russia was fighting the Ottomans in World War One in brutal battles. The massacre of Arminianism served as a means of eliminating a threat within their weakening empire. Due to teh chaos of World War One, the tenstions witin the empire were higher, allowing fior this genocide to happen. Also because of World War One, other powerful countries did not stand up for the Armenians as they were locked in an all consuming war. Even though countries like the United States were aware of the horrendous acts in the empire, not one contrary stood up against the Turks. To this day, Turkey denied all accusations of a planned genodice of the Armenian race. They claim that the deaths simply resulted from World War One and the internal civil wars that occurred inside of the Empire. Many historians believe that the actions against the Armianians served as a template for Hitler during the genoicicde of the Jewish peoples over the course of World War Two. The Armenian Geneoice was the first Genoicde of the 20th century and it would not be the last.