This was created by my friend Ava G. She deserves all credit.
Human Origins and Prehistory:
Hominids, early human-like beings, originated in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa about 4-4.5 million years ago. Early humans most likely traveled “Out of Africa” and to the Middle East, followed by Europe, Asia and eventually crossing over into the Americas 150,000 years ago. The need to move was prompted by changes in climate, food sources, and a growing population.
“Lucy”, the most complete skeleton of an Australopithecus was found by Donald Johansen and she is believed to have walked the Earth 3 Million years ago. In Laetoli Africa, 2 sets of fossilized footprints found by Mary Leakey showed socialization and confirmed bipedalism. “Ardi”, is the earliest known hominid and is believed to have walked the Earth 4.4 million years ago. The Human Genome Project was a study of DNA that showed all humans can be traced back to one common ancestor and all originated from Africa.
The Paleolithic Age occurred during the late Ice Age from 2.5 million B.C.E to 8,000 B.C.E. Humans existed in small nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers of usually no more than 50 people. Men would typically hunt as women typically gathered, groups shared a sense of gender equality. The age also dubbed the Stone age for early humans used simple stone tools. Early Humans also made clothes from animal skins, made cave paintings and used fire for protection and cooking.
The Neolithic Age occurred after the Paleolithic Age and was a great period of human development. The Agricultural/Neolithic Revolution was a turning point in human history, when about 8,000 years ago in the Middle East humans began cultivating land. The discovery of agriculture and the domestication of animals allowed humans to stay sedentary and develop permanent villages. Neolithic farming villages were centered around agriculture, had permanent settlement and the oldest and biggest were in the Middle East. Farming Villages changed the roles of the sexes as men worked and farmed and women cared for the house and children.
Farming had good and bad effects, humans had worse diets, less free time for culture and scientific developments, as well as a quickened spread of diseases. On the other hand humans were able to build up a surplus of food, grow in population and start civilization. A +civilization has 8 key components that make it a civilization: writing systems, an organized government, public works, social hierarchy, religious/spiritual beliefs, job specialization, cities/towns/kingdoms, as lasty art/architecture.
Complex Civilizations:
After the Neolithic Revolution, Complex Civilizations began arising all throughout the world. These societies had advanced knowledge of math and sciences, and used it to their advantage when building monuments and complex architecture. With the use of metallurgy, these civilizations were able to use more efficient tools and weapons. Complex ideologies and religions evolved through these cities and influenced social classes and government systems. Writing and money systems emerged from many of these civilizations. The geography and region of these societies played a role in how they survived, the technology they produced, how they interacted with other societies, their belief systems and their decline.
The Major Complex Civilizations are:
The Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent,
Phonenicians, The Assyrians, New Babylonians The Persians, The Hittites (part of Mesopotamia),
The Hebrew People,
Egypt,
The Chinese Yellow River Valley,
The Indus Valley,
The Mesoamerican Olmec and Chavin
Mesopotamian Complex Civilizations:
The Fertile Crescent is located between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea and is located in SouthWest Asia. This Area is also known as Mesopotamia. The Fertile Crescent was made up of independent city states that fought frequently with each other for resources and land. The lack of natural barriers made it very easy to invade. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers made the land arable for agriculture. But, these rivers flooded and created the need for irrigation systems through the city states. Mesopotamia was involved in trade within itself and throughout the Mediterranean. Polytheist religions and Ideologies affected the government and social status in these cities. For example the standing social hierarchy: kings, to priests, to military and nobles, merchants and artisans, peasants and last slaves. The worship of kings and gods created a close connection between religion and government. Mesopaotmia was also a Patriarchal society with few rights for women. Ziggurats were large monumental places used as temples and government centers.The Epic of Gilgamesh, was a regoulse poem that showed the connection of religion and nature. Governments were ununified until the warrior-king Hammurabi. Hammurabi created the first set of written laws, Hammurabi’s code, reinforced social division with a harsh “eye for an eye” mentality. Much influential technology came out of Mesopotamia. Plows and wheels aided in farming. Chariots, bows and arrows influenced warfare. Cuneiform, the written language of mesopotamia helped with taxes collected by the government. The eventual decline of Mesopotamia was warfare, irrigation and agriculture failure and the unification of city states into Babylon,
The Assyrians were a warlike, miliatist empire that existed in Mesopotamia. They used force and extreme torture and intimidation tactits to councor large sweeps of land. They used advanced iron weapons and tools. This helped them become the first “true empire”, with large holdings of land far away from their capital, Nineveh.
The Phoenicians were seafaring people who settled on the East Coast of the Mediteranean Sea. They were heavily involved with trade up and down the Mediterranean, in Mesopotamia, and with Egypt. They were skilled shipbuilders and sailors as well as expert navigators. They produced papyrus in the city Byblos and created the precursor to the alphabet.
The New Babylonians were a significant civilization in Mesopotamia. They were led by king Nebuchadnezzar, who rebuilt Babyolin and was known for the Hanging Gardens.
The Persians were an extensive empire east of Mesopotamia in what is today, modern day Iran. Started by Cyrus, they were one of the largest empires that conquered large plethoras of land. They were extremely tolerant of those they conquered and allowed them to counitune their way of life and ideologies under Persian rule. They used a belief system called Zoroastrianism which is based on the struggle between good and evil.
The Hittites were a civilization located in modern day Iraq and Turkey. They were a powerful militaristic society with advanced iron tools and a mastery in chariot warfare. Their geographic location and technological advances of the Hitties helped them largely succeed in battle.
The Hebrew People were a group of people who descended from Abram, the son of a mesopotamian polythestic family. Abram devoted himself to God, made a covenant with God, and changed his name to Abraham, which means the father of many. The followers of Abraham's faith, the Hebrew people migrated to the land of Canaan. They lived peacefully in Canaan until the land was ravaged with famine and they escaped to Egypt. Which led to the Hewbrew people being enslaved in Egypt. They were led out of the region by Moses who was guided by God and received God's laws on Mount. Sinai. The Hebrew people returned and created a kingdom in Cannan. Years of conquest lead to Diaspora, which is the spreading of Hewbrew (Jews) around the world. The Jewish faith was very influential. It contained the belief in a monotheistic omnipresent God which differs from the polycystic ideologies that Mesopotamia carried. Another belief being the Torah and the Ten Commandments, which served as religious and moral laws.
Egypt was an advanced, long sustaining, society formed along the Nile River. The “gift of the Nile'', was that its flooding was incredibly predictable and it aided in agriculture. Irrigation also played a role in Egyption agriculture. It was incredibly challenging to invade Egypt because of its natural barriers, like the Sahara Desert. The Nile also had water-rapid like cataracts which protected them. A polotheistic Religion played a major role in Egyption society. The hope and preparation for an afterlife was the motive or many things the Egyptians did. The construction of the Pyramids, which is a tomb for the god-king a Pharaoh, was a major monument and architectural feat. The social hierarchy was also affected by religion, as it goes: Pharaoh, priests, government officials, warriors, scribes, merchants, artisans, farmers, and lastly slaves. Government consisted of a monarchy where the Pharaoh was believed to be a king-god. Egypt had a large organized military that helped then conquer and build an empire. They had extensive public works and organized collection of taxes. Because of the Nile, the Egyptians were closely involved in trade. They made many technological advances in math, science, and human anatomy, as mummification was a large part of their belief systems. They used a writing system known as hieroglyphics. Which was inscribed on papyrus, a paper made from reeds. Hieroglyphics were understood through the Rosetta Stone. Egyptian decline was Hittite and Assyrain invasion, as they had advanced iron warfare.
Indus Valley Complex Civilization:
The Indus Valley societies were located in Southern Asia, India. These civilizations are mainly not understood, as their writing system has not been deciphered. What is known and inferred about the Indus Valley civilizations is not definite, as there is little information on who these people were or what happened to them. Harappa and Mohenjo were two significant cities that were formed along the Ganges and Indus Rivers. These rivers served as transportation and aided in agriculture. Harappa and Mohenjo were agrarian societies as well as mercantile societies, who exported more in trade then they imported.They were heavily involved in trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia and along the Indian Ocean and Arabain Sea. The Indus Valley civilizations were protected by the Mountains in the North which made them hard to invade. The people of the Indus Valley had to work around monsoons, which brought heavy rains for many months and then no rains at all. This led to the Indus Valley civilizations developing advanced irrigation and water storage systems. The Indus Valley civilizations are believed to have had a strong central government because of their extensive public works, standizied society which has uniform measures, uniform weights and measures, grid city layout, and complex urban planning. The Indus Valley social hierarchy is believed to be the same as Mesopotamia and Egypt : Kings/god-ruler, presets, government officials/nobles, military, merchants, artisans, peasants, slaves. It is believed that the Indus Valley civilizations believed in a polytheist femine “mother nature” type god. They also placed heavy importance on being clean, with advanced medicine and sewer systems for all members of society. The Indus Societies decline is not known for certain but was most likely invasion, climate, disease, or deforestation.
Complex Civilization in Ancient China:
The complex civilization in China, were in the Yellow-River Valley and were settled along the Huang He river. The Huang He or yellow river was known as the “river of sorrows” as its unpredictable flooding caused much devastation. The Chinese Civilizations were isolated due to natural barriers. This gave them an ethnocratic view as the “Middle Kingdom” These societies were agrarian and had advanced irrigation and water canal systems. They specialize in growing rice and producing silk through sericulture. The isolated location of these civilizations changed their social hierarchy, placing peasants over merchants, as they were not heavily involved in trade. China had no real slavery. The governmental system was a Feudalistic Monarchy. The Monarchy was ruled by dynasties, which means to be ruled by one family. The Mandate of Heaven, which was the belief that the heavens had chosen a specific family to rule created the dynastic cycle. Which was the overthrowing of previous dynasties and replacement with new ones. Two influential and early dynasties were the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The Zhou wrestled away control from the Shang with the mandate of heaven. Feudalism is when land is given to military rulers called Gentry, from the emperor in return for loyalty. These societies were polytheistic and believed in oracle bones as a way to tell the future. As well as ancestor worship. The Chinese have advanced knowledge of mathematics and science, papermaking technlgu, a symbol based written language, and a coin system.
The Olmec and Chavin were two influential societies in the Americas that were not river dependent. The Olmec is based in Mesoamerica which is Central America and modern day Mexico. And, the Chavin settled in South America, Peru, in the foothills of the Andes Mountains. The Olmec was a monarchy where the king had responsibilities that were governmental and religious. The Olmec was an agrarian society with little need for irrigation because they received plenty of rain. Little animals were domesticated in the Olmec. The Olmec has advanced in urban planning, a number system, and written language. The Olmec were called the “mother culture”, because they were the precursor for other civilizations in the same area. The Chavin were a well organized monarchy that experienced frequent warfare within itself. The Chavin were agrarian and relied on the sea for food. They also domesticated llamas. The Chavin had advanced technologies in metallurgy which is mixing metals and had superior textiles and pottery. The Chavin also spread their beliefs through the area.
Classical Era Civilizations:
The Classical Era was from 600 B.C.E to 600 C.E and was characterized by the rise of great empires that became the core foundations of later civilizations. These were complex empires, where one kingdom rules many. In order to maintain these empires more complex institutions were developed. For example, bureaucracies, extensive trade and communication networks, regulated trade with a common currency, expanded militaries and more complex legal conditions.
The major Classical civilizations are:
Qin/Han Dynasties-China
Japan
Maurya/Gupta-India
Greece/Persia
Roman Empire-Mediterranean Area
(Early Byzantine Empire/Russia)
Classical China:
The Warring States Period was the name given to the period of time after the collapse of the Zhou Dynasty. This was a period of social unrest and chaos where China was disunited as many families and kingdoms fought for control. During this time, three significant philosophies or schools of thought were developed: Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.
Confucianism is a philosophy consisting of The Analects, which were a collection of Confucius’s speaking. His teachings addressed the following: humanity, reciprocity, filial piety and the five relationships. Filial piety is a son's respect that is due to his father. The five relationships are: ruler superior to subject, father superior to son, husband superior to wife, older is superior to younger and friend superior to friend. The five relationships create social harmony. Confucianism’s view on government was based on a wise ruler who ruled with virtue.
Daoism was founded by Lao Zi/Lao Tsu and was based on the Dao de jing. Daoists worshiped the Dao, the “way”, or a force that guides the universe. They stressed the importance of harmony with nature. As well as the concept of Yin and Yang. Views on government is that the government should be laid back and uninvolved.
Legalism was founded by Han fei zi and Shang zi, it was based on the book: Han fei zi. It supported strict and cruel government, as human nature is one of evil and it is needed that men are submissive to authority.
The Qin Dynasty overpowered the other fighting families during the Warring Period and claimed the Mandate of Heaven. It became an era of stability and the first true empire in China. The emperor was Shi Huang Di and based his nation on Legalism, leaving a strong, militaristic government with cruel punishments. They had a powerful army They built the impressive Great Wall of China, extensive public works, and the Great Tomb filled with the TerraCotta Soldiers. The Qin had standardized weights and measures and a standardized language. They had a strict Social Hierarchy, and took land from nobles and gave it to peasants. They had censorship over media and literature and left few freedoms for civilians. They were an agrarian economy and had high taxes. They were polytheissic and believed in ancestor worship.
The Han Dynasty overthrew the Qin and claimed the Mandate of Heaven. They were founded by Liu Bang and they were led by emperor and were a successful empire for 400 years. The Han was an era of great prosperity. The legalistic ideas changed into confucianism under the Han. They had a strengthened infrastructure and a strong military. Confucianism was implemented into their society and revised. There was a strict social hierarchy but there was some movement through the civil service exam, which let people move into governmental jobs. There was a rise of scholarly gentry and a patriarchal society. They were an agrarian society with many public works. There was huge trade on the silk road and there was some overseas trade. Government monopolies existed on salt mines, alcohol, iron, and minting coins. They were polytheisic and believed in ancestor worship. Buddhism arrives in China through the silk road. The assimilation of people into China was welcomed and supported. The Bun Zhao was a book of lessons for women. The Han dynasty made many important inventions and new technologies. Advances in navigation, ships with rudders, metallurgy and bronze casting, textbooks on zoology and botany, serriculture, medicine and technology like collar, stirrups and plows for farming.
The Silk Road During the Classical Era:
The Silk Road was an extensive land based trade route that linked China to the West during the classical era. The Silk Road reached his height during the Han empire. Many empires participated in trade along the road. For example, China, Kushan, Parthian, India, Greece, and Rome. This type of long distance trade was facilitated by the domestication of the camel and new technology. Silk was transported and was the most valuable commodity along the road. From Asia, teas, spices, furs, and porcelain were traded. From India, gems, spices and the ideas and spirituality of Buddhism. From Siberia, furs and skins. From Egypt and Arabia, cosmetics and perfumes. From Rome, gold and silver. The road was long and dangerous. With tough terrain, geographic factors, contaminated water and bandits and thieves. The Silk Road prompted major cultural diffusion. Confuncais, and Daoism were introduced to South Asia. Buddhits teachings spread throughout India to China. Knowledge about astronomy, mathematics, and medicine were shared. But, disease was also spread through the road.
Japan During the Classical Era:
Japan’s geography heavily affected its culture, spiritual ideas, and contact with other nations. Japan, located between the Sea of Japan and the Pacific Ocean, is a mountainous archipelago. An archipelago consists of a region of islands, Japan has four major islands : Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu (largest), and lastly Hokkaido. Japan, being mostly coastal, relied on seafaring lines of work like fishing, trade and transportation. Japan’s interior land is 90% mountainous, which causes a difficult situation for agriculture. Japanese people adapted to this by developing terrace farming, where large “steps” were cut into mountain sides to make a flat surface. The mountain terrain of Japan also isolated people from each other and made Japan hard to unite. Japan's location within the Ring of Fire, caused many unpredictable natural disasters like tsunamis, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Shinto, was a Japanese spirituality that was based on nature. Because of Japan’s geographic location and difficult terrain, a deep reverence for nature arised. Similarly to Daoism, Shinto is the spirituality of worshiping these natural spirits/deities. These nature deities were referred to as Kami. Shinto had no founder, moral code, or written text. This left the spirituality to be celebrated through rituals and community ceremonies. Amaterasu, was the sun kami and eventually it was believed that the emperor descended from her. Shintoism mainly remains in Japan due to Japan’s island isolation. But, Buddhism travels over from China.
India During the Classical Era:
South Asian Philosophies
Hinduism is a religion that was founded around 1500 B.C.E and was not founded by any specific founder. When Indo-Europenans, also known as “Aryans'', arrived into the Indian subcontinent, they brought with them their Verdic religion and a very strict social hierarchy. Then Aryan Veridc beliefs blended with the beliefs of the Indus Valley and this founded the many versions of Hinduism.
Hindus have a range of beliefs as there are many different denominations of the religion. Hindus worship Brahman as the supreme spirit present in everything. They also worship gods and goddesses, and idols. These idols use the same energy as Brahman, and are just a different representation of him. The goal of a Hindu is to reach Moksha, Hindu heaven. In Moksha one is one with Brahman and released from the cycle of reincarnation. Reincarnation is the process in which the soul is reborn after death. Hindus also believe in karma, that your actions and behavior will come back to you. As well as, dharma, your ability to meet your obligation to the world. The caste system is a strict social hierarchy believed by the Hindus. The caste system, as follows: Brahmin (closest to Moksha), Kshatriya, (governors and rulers), Vaisva, (merchants, artisans and farmers), Shuara (servants), and lastly Dalites (untouchables).The caste system can be broken down into jati. The sacred writings of Hinduism are written in Sanskrit. They include Shastras, Vedas and Rig Veda.
Hinduism had a major influence on India and the world. It is currently the 3rd largest religion in the world. Beliefs like ahimsa: the belief all living things have value leads many to plant based diet. Yoga is something practiced by many to help them move closer to Brahmen. Many festivals also happen in the name of Hinduism. The caste system has a huge influence on the lives of Indians even though it was outlawed to discriminate by caste.
Buddhism developed from the man named Siddhartha Gautama, around the same time as Hinduism, who is later known as Budda. Gautama’s mother prophesied that the boy was special, and would grow into a great king if he stayed at home. But, if he left home, he would become a great spiritual leader. His father, with the hope of his son becoming a great ruler, isolated Gauntama from the world. Gauntama left the walls of his home four times, he saw: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and lastly a man who seemed at peace. He wanted to reach enlightenment and find an answer to end suffering. He tried many different ways to reach enlightenment, like fasting, but nothing helped him reach enlightenment. He meditated under a tree for 49 days, and understood the cause of suffering. He was then called Budda, the enlightened one, and thus the founder of Buddhism.
Buddist beliefs center around ending suffering and reaching Nirvana. Nirvana is the end of the reincarnation cycle where one reaches peace. To do this one must understand Budda’s teaching, The Four Noble Truths. They are: “All life is suffering, suffering is caused by desire/cravings, to end suffering one must end desire, to end desire one must follow the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold path is as follows: right beliefs, right action, right aspirations, right speech, right livelihood, right memory, right conduct, right meditation. Buddhism’s scripture is centered around the Japakas and the Tripitakas. Buddha also taught about the Middle Way, which tells people to avoid self denial and self indulgence. Buddhism denied the Hindu belief of the caste system.
Buddhism spread throughout the world through trade and was impactful. Buddhism served as a guide for living ethically. Followers practiced yoga, meditation, plant based diets, ahimsa. Because Buddhism denied the caste system, it was desirable by all class members. Buddhism spread through trade along the silk road and missionaries throughout India. Buddhism eventually split into two different branches: Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada is very strict where only monks can reach Nirvana. Mahayanna is less strict and for the ordinary people. Mahayanna views Buddha as a compassionate god.
Hinduism and Buddhism are similar, but there are some key differences. Hinduism has not one single founder, where Buddhism was founded by Gauntama (Budda). The religions have different origins, as Hinduism is a mix of Aryan Verdic religion and Indus Valley beliefs. Buddhism was founded on the stories and teachings of just Budda. Hinduism has a strict social hierarchy, the caste system, that Buddhism rejects. Both religions believe in reincarnation, a final resting place (Nirvana/Moksha) and Dharma/Karma.
Classical India: The Mauryan Empire, (321-114 B.C.E):
The Mauryan Empire was founded during the 4th century, with the exact date of 321-114 B.C.E. The empire was founded by Chandragupta Mauryan. The empire established the first united states in India, ending a period of small kingdoms fighting for control. The government consisted of a monarchy, with the capital city called Pataliputra. The empire was divided into different provinces that were ruled by: ruled by the king, ruled by local king, and lastly ruled by local republic. Chandragupta ruled harshly with the use of intense military and spies. A later ruler, called Ashoka the Great, ruled less harshly, with diplomacy and Buddismm. The society of the Mauryan Empire was initially based on the caste system. But, the society was united through a ceremonial state based on Buddhism which was enforced through Ashoka. Buddhism greatly spread during this time. It spread along the silk road and indian ocean and was used by missionaries. The economy centered around trade, taxes were high but lessened with the rule of Ashoka. Weights and measures were standardized and infrastructure was taken well care of.The decline occurred because of a weak military, ineffective rules which created an overall broken kingdom.
The Gupta Empire, Classical Era (320-550 B.C.E):
The Gupta Empire is known as the Golden age, and an era of peace. It was ruled with a strong and stable monarchy, but not as centralized or as large as the Mauryan Empire. The local government played a large role. The Gupta empire used a powerful military. The capital was Pataliputra. The empire’s economy was based on agriculture with advancements in irrigation and trade/commerce. Trade flourished through the Middle East, Mediteraninan zone, the silk road and it started the indian trade routes.The empire had an extensive system of roads that prompted trade, trade was facilitated. This Golden age had great advances in learning with the development of many institutes of education. Rulers emphasized the caste system causing the system to play a large role in social hierarchy and enforce a patriarchal society. Even though it was a patriarchal society, there was some freedom for women who joined Buddist monasteries and left Hinduism. Both Hinduism and Buddhism existed at this time, but Hinduism flourished. Money was given to Hindu temples and monuments. Technology greatly increased. Advancements in math: the development of Aryan (first indian) number system, concept of zero/infinity and decimal system. Advancements in science, smallpox vaccination, advanced surgery, germ theory and sterilization. Arts also flourished: Kalidask wrote a play empahings all human emotions. Sculpture and art were also greatly appreciated. The decline of the Gupta Empire was caused by internal weakness, corrupt and ineffective rulers, over expansion, civil war, and the invasion of The White Huns.
Classical Greece/Persia:
The geography of Greece played an important role in the development of early societies. Greece is an archipelago located between the Aegean and Mediterranean Sea, further located in Southern Europe. This seaside location allowed early greek civilizations to develop a seafaring tradition. Greece was also highly mountainous, so terrace farming developed. Also because of the mountainous terrain, Greece was ununified, causing the Greek Polis. Polis, or another word for city states, was how the land was organized. These city states shared the same language and religion, but each had a unique identity, laws and traditions.
The three most notable early Medditeranian civilizations are, The Minoans, Mycenaeans and The Phoenicians. The Minoans were described as joyful people living on Crete in 2200 B.C.E. Their economy was agriculture based with grapes and olives but also some trading. Around 2000 B.C.E the Mycenaeans developed on Peloponnese. They had a trade and agriculture based economy. They were the first true Greek civilization until the Darius, warlike people, took over and created a dark age in Greece. Lastly the Phoenincains were seafaring people off the Mediterranean who are most noted for their development of an alphabet.
Athens and Sparta were two major Greek city states that developed during the 4th and 5th centuries. Athens eventually became an empire. But first, as a city state, Athens developed a democracy government that allowed only citizens to participate, citizens were native men. The Athenian society prepared men for a place in society, but gave women little rights as women had male relatives as legal guardians. Athens inspired free thinking, studies in grammar, rhetoric, music, and encompassed many materialistic luxuries. On the other hand, Sparta used a strict oligarchy government, where a small group ruled the many. They were extremely militaristic and mandatory military service. In Spartan society, discussion was discouraged and loyalty was demanded to the state. Men were expected to fight and read and write. Women were also expected to defend Sparta and continue the state while men were at war, giving them considerably more rights than Atheanian women. Sparta was agrarian and self-sufficient, but also used slaves called Helots.
The Athenian Empire developed after Athens broke free of Persian rule. After the Persian Wars The Delian league was founded under Athenian rule. All city states joined, and Athens determined the amount of taxes paid. As a result, the Athenian empire formed. These taxes funded the Athenian golden age.
The Athenian golden age is also known as the Age of Pericles. During this time, major advancements in technology, the arts, government and philosophy occurred. Pericles is known as the father of democracy, as he expanded the democracy that occurred in Athens. Here, citizens were considered native men, they could only participate in government events. These citizens could serve, prepose, debate and vote on issues. This formed a direct but limited democracy, where individuals themselves voted and participated in government. The executive branch consisted of the elected 10 generals. The Legislative branch was made up of the Council of 500 as well as the Assembly, who made decisions.
The Athenian Empire was mostly a trade based economy. The large and powerful navy made the seas safter for merchants. Athens also used their vast navy to control trade in order to benefit themselves. Athens, like the rest of Greece, used terrace farming, mostly to grow olives and grapes. Athens was able to build its empire by using the taxes that they controlled and collected from the Delian league.
During the Golden age, Athens was polythesic. They held the beliefs of myths and stories that were passed down. Many of these stories were about the greek gods. These gods resemble humans in their actions and emotions. For example, the Odyssey and the Iliad. One of the many things that advanced during this time was philosophy. Philosophy being the study of the world around them, as well as a direct translation of lovers of wisdom. Three notable philosophers were: Socrates, who developed the socratic method, Plato who formed the Academy and advocated for women, and Aristotle, who was also a scientist who used logic and reason. Athens also had great development in theatre. Plays were put on inside amphitheatres, which held many. These plays were tragedies and comedies. All shows were put on to honor the god of enjoyment. During this time, great temples like the Pantheon were constructed. These temples were built using three different types of columns. The Poric: basic design, the Corinthian: flowers and vines, the Iconic: scrolls. Other types of Athenian Art included sculptures which showed beauty and perfection as well as vases that showed battles, myths and stories.
The Great Atheinian empire came to after Sparta grew angry over Athene’s control. Sparta and Athens engaged in war. Sparta, winning imposed terms on Athens that ended democracy, and the Golden Age.
The Perisan Empire was a vast and powerful empire that spread and conquered much of the world. Cyrus the Great conquered Medaes, Anatolian peninsula, Syria and Bablon and became the first leader of the massive Persian Empire. The Empire treated those it conquered fairly and was culturally tolerant. Its most notable act of this toleration was the freeing of the Jews. After being freed from Babylon, the Jews were allowed to practice their religion freely. Even though the Persian empire was culturally tolerant, its main religion was Zoroastrianism: which was the belief that good and evil were in constant struggle where good would prevail. The religion focused around two gods: Ahura Mazda, god of life and Ahiman, god of darkness. Persian government stayed within the rule of Cyrus’s family, the Achaemendia. The government functioned as a centralized monarchy. It used satraps, or provinces to rule over their large amounts of land. They settled revolutions with the use of spies who worked as the “eyes and ears'' of the King. Persia was ruled from Cyrus in the capital of Persepolis until his death, from there it was taken over by Daruis, who served as the next Persian king. The capital Persepolis is located in present day Iran. It was elaborate with many gardens and advanced palaces. Daruis then changed the capital to Parsa, which was a remote location and hard to travel to during the rainy seasons.
The Persians developed an extensive system of underground irrigation called the qanat, that allowed them to farm on otherwise dry land. They also developed an underground drainage system. In order to trade, transport the military and manage the empire, the Great Canal and Royal Roads were developed. The Great Canal spans from the Nile to the Red Sea. The Royal Roads were an extensive system of roads that united the empire, that included a network of rest stops along the way. Both roads and canals helped facilitate trade.
Persia had a similar social structure to other nations at the time. They had a larger class of educated bureaucrats simply because of the empire’s size. They also had a large number of slaves that were from conquered lands. Even though society was particularly, women were allowed to participate in trade. Women were also expected to cover their hair and wear veils.
The Persian Empire's economy was based on agriculture, making the need for the quant system great. They also used Granaries The economy also heavily depended on trade from the Royal Roads as well as by sea. They collected taxes and made conquered lands pay tribute to prevent a persian invasion.
The Persian Empire came to an end after constant wars with the greek. These wars cost too much money to maintain the empire. Later leaders also became less tolerant. And finally the Persian Empire fell into the Rule of Alexander the Great.
Alexander the Great was the son of King Phillip II, who was king of Macedonia. Alexander had become kind of Macedonia by the age of 20. At the battle of Granicus, Alexander defeated Persia and King Darius. Alexander built an extensive empire that spanned from Macedonia, Greece, Turkey(Anatolia), The Middle East, North Africa and West Africa. Alexander’s goal was to create a large unified empire. His empire was governed with a combination of Greek city state methods and Persian Satraps. After Alexander’s death, his empire split into three smaller empires, but it still had a lasting impact. Alexander spread cultures from around the world, creating hellenism. Where Greek, Persian and other cultures mixed together.
The Roman Empire:
Rome was a small settlement along the Tiber River. Around 800 B.C.E the city of Rome was conquered by the Etrusceans who established rule for 100 Years. This rule led to the Romans overthrowing the Etrusceans and forming the Roman Republic. A republic is a group in which people elect representatives into the government.
The Roman Republic was something of great importance to the Romans, as they had written “SPQR” on many things as a sign of the republic. SPQR means “Senatus Populus que Romans” in latin. Which translates to “The Senate and The People of Rome”. The Republic was divided into three branches of government. The executive branch being The Consul. The judicial branch being The Praetors, who were a group of wealthy judges. And Lastly, the Legislative branch being the Roman Senate, Assembly and the Tribunes. The Twelve Tables was the first code of law for Rome. It guaranteed all equality under the laws, innocent until proven guilty, and ignorance of the laws does not excuse crimes. The Twelve Tables helped extend rights for the plebeians, Rome's working class, while holding back the Patricians, Rome’s upper class. The plebeians made up 90% of the population as farmers, shopkeepers, soldiers, and slaves. They could not own land, they were not considered citizens, and they could not vote in the Senate. The Patricians were only 10% of the population. They were landowners and citizens.
The Roman Principate was from 27 B.C.E to 284 C.E. Octavain became the sole ruler and Emperor of Rome as he had brought an end to a century of political chaos and civil war. Octavian changed his name to Augustus. He made a system of government where he labeled himself “Princeps” meaning first citizen. Augustus transferred the power to the tax and control the army to ensure that no one could challenge his rule. The period between 27 B.C.E and 180 C.E. was known as “Pax Romana”, meaning Roman Peace. This is referred to as the Roman Golden Age.
In 133 B.C.E the fall of the Roman Republic occurred and the rise of the Roman Empire began. As small farm owners returned from fighting in the Punic Wars their farms were taken over and turned into “Latitundias”, or large farms. This was a time of instability as military leaders promised order and offered land in turn for loyalty. The Roman empire has begun.
Rome’s location played a role in its evolution as an empire. Its access to Mediterranean provided opportunities for trade and transport. The Italian peninsula has an overall mild climate that allows for farming. Rome began to grow its empire through conquest like the Hellenistic, and Punic Wars. Their empire grew to Italy, Greece, North Africa, Carthage and Egypt, the Middle East and modern day France and England. The First and Second Punic Wars were fought with Carthage for the land of Sicily. As Rome dominated areas outside of its peninsula it brought back many ideas. Rome had a large army of personnel that was well disciplined. Roman Infrastructure consisted of walled cities and many roads. These roads were initially for soldiers and conquestes but would later be opened for merchants. The Via Appia was the oldest roman road that stretched 400 miles. Rome was able to control trade throughout the mediterranean. Rome traded with the Middle East and along the silk road. This promoted much cultural diffusion.
For most of history, due to the extreme cultural diffusion throughout the empire, Rome was tolerant to different religions as long as people believed in roman gods and paid taxes. But, this was not the case with Christanity. Christaity originated from a Jew named Jesus Christ, who challenged the traditional teachings of Judaism and the Roman Empire. Christ was crucified by the romans. He was recognized as the Messiah after His several miracles and His resurrection from the dead. People who decided to follow the teachings of Christ were no longer known as jewish but as christains. The followers of Jesus were seen as a threat to the roman empire as they did not worship the roman emperor or roman gods. Christains were persecuted for their beliefs. During the reign of Nero, Christsians were blamed for the burning of Rome, even though it was most likely Nero himself who arranged the fire. As more people became Martyrs to their faith, Romans re-evaluated their stance on religion. The Edict of Milan, issued by Constaninte granted all religions tolerance in rome. The Edict of Theodosius, issued by emperor Theodosius made Christainity the official religion of Rome.
After many years of rule over the Medditeranian area, the Roman empire fell. This fall was gradual, and had four key parts. Problems with political systems: overexpansion, Military mercarines not giving loyalty, weak emperors, corrupt governments with no plans for future successions. Problems with social interactions like an idle rich class, less emphasis on fighting due to Christianity, free entertainment, “Bread and Circus”, rebellion in outer provinces and limited education. Problems throughout the economy: expansion stopping, so economy stopping, slaves held the jobs of freemen, unemployment, low wages and high taxes, inflation due to less valued coinage. Lasty, external factors: barbarian invasions for many years, Hun invasions from central asia, and invasions of Germanic tribes. All of this over many years caused the gradual fall of Rome.
Post Classical Era 600 C.E-1450 C.E:
The Byzantine Empire/Early Russia
Islamic Empires: Umayyad/Abbasid
Western Europe After the Fall of Rome, (Dark/Middle Ages)
Feudal Japan, Song/Tang Dynasties, the Mongol Empire, and the Ming Dynasty
Africa and The Americas: Kush, Axum, Bantu, Ghana, Mali, SongHai
Maya, Aztec, Inca
Muslim Gunpowder Empires: Ottoman
The Italian Renaissance City States/West Europe
The Post Classical Era spanned from 600-1450 C.E and is encompassed by the great civilizations of the Classical Era collapsing. Society sprouts from the Arabain Desert, the steppes in Central Asia, and from recurring society rebuilding like Byzantine and China. In this era, there was a major shift to monotheistic religions, the spread of developed civilizations to new continents, larger international trade, new technologies and new belief systems.
Byzantine Empire:
The Byzantine empire spanned from 476-1453 B.C.E after Roman emperor Constaintine developed the second capital of Rome. Constantine saw the gradual fall of the West Roman empire and moved power to a second Eastern capital named Constantinople. This move of power started the Byzantine Empire which truly began shortly after the fall of Rome, hence its nickname “new Rome”. The empire surrounded the Mediteranan which allowed it to be centered in between the muslim world and Europe. Its strategic location on the Bosporus Strait facilitated trade. The capital of Constantinople was a major center of culture and trade. The empire preserved Greco-Roman culture and was founded and mainly practiced Christianity. Byzantines were similar to their Roman parents, but they were mostly all christian and spoke Greeck. The government was structured as a monarchy/empire that was based in its capital. The empire used a strong army with many structural defenses to maintain its cities and borders. The Code of Justinan simplified lengthy roman laws in order to supply the empire with a well developed code of law. Emperor Justinian is also responsible for the construction of the Hagia Sophia, which was a religious and architectural marvel of its time. The Byzamtine government helped strengthen the beliefs of christanity. Its eventual fall occurred gradually as revenue from taxes declined, the bubonic plague struck, class gap increased and muslim infringement gradually took down the empire. But, the empire was struck with a final blow when the ottoman empire invaded Constantinople in 1453 and entirely conquered the empire.
Religion played a huge role in the Byzantine Empire. The official religion of the empire and capital was christanity. In Byzatine, the church was headed and controlled by patriarchs. These patriarchs were led by the emperor. The Great Schism was a split of one unified religion into two: the Western Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Greek Orthodox Church. Different religious interpretations and ways of worship between the east and west parts of the (as of now) combined church developed. The Easten parts of the church, like that of Byzantine, used icons of religious figures to aid in worship. An uprise of iconoclast or those who wished to ban the use of icons occurred. Eventually, in 730 C.E emperor Leo iii banned icons. This led to the pope excommunicating Leo from the (as of now combined) church. This caused a (as of now) permanent split that created two separate churches.
The western Roman Catholic church was led by the pope and it did not adhere to a secular ruler. The pope has superiority over bishops and kings. The church was based in Rome and its official language was latin. Priests were not allowed to marry, for they must stay celibute. The church also banded divorce. The Eastern Greek Orthodox church was led by the patriarch and adhered to emperors and kings. They do not follow a singular religious leader (pope). Priests may marry and divorce throughout the church. As both East and West christanity started to spread and grow, Greek Orthoox missionaries started to spread Christanity to the Slavs in Russia. Two brothers St. Cyril and St. Methodius created a slavic alphabet so the slavs could read the Bible in their own language.
Russia is a very large country and landmass with many different types of geography. Russia has large plains that spread from Europe to Asia. The landscape consists of frozen desserts, large mountains, taigas and permafrost land. The Black Sea was an especially important body of water that filicated trade. These geographical features affected the rise of Russia.
The Slavs were people from the forest and from North of the Black Sea. They held no political unity until King Rurik founded Novgorod, which was the first Russian city. Another city, Kiev, was a city on the Dnieper River. Here, Vikings traded to Constantinople and adopted Slavic cultures. In Kiev, there was a divide between peasant masses and nobles called Boyars. Kiev’s proximity to the Byzantine empire led to much cultural diffusion, leading Kiev to convert to Orthoxod Christanity. The city of Kiev became the first unified territory under Vladimir. Vladimir’s son, Yaroslav made alliances with Western Europe and developed a legal code. But, Yaroslav died in 1054 leaving his sons to fight over power. This alongside trade disruption due to crusades brought Kiev to a gradual decline.
During the mid 1200’s horsemen, named Mongoals, from central Asia moved into Russia. By 1240 they attacked and demolished Kiev once and for all. This left Mongols in rule of Southern Russia. Under Mongol rule, Russians could practice their religions and customs if they did not rebel. The Mongols were tolerant. The church stood as a mediator between the Russians and Mongols. Though the Mongols cut off Russia from Western Europe, they helped to unite Russia under one ruler as people had to pay tribute to the Mongal Khan.
Mossocw was a city located near the Volga, Dnieper and Don rivers. In 1320, Prince Ivan stopped a Russian revolution against the Mongols. Because of this, the Mongols appointed him the tax collector of the lands they had conquered. Ivan was soon known as Ivan the Great, as he moved the Church Patriarch from Kiev to Moscow, giving Moscow the ally of the Church. Ivan the iii, began to call himself Czar which was a great claim of power. He makes Russia known as the “third Rome”. In 1480, Ivan iii broke away from the Mongols and
They left Russia. But, a different Ivan known as Ivan the Terrible, centralized power, took all power from nobles and destroyed towns and people who did not support him.
Islamic Empires:
The Arabian Peninsula is an area in the Middle East. Inside of it were only a few urban cities among the vast desert. Those who did not live in cities were nomadic people called Bedouins, whose culture is based on animal herding. Before Islam, the Peninsula consisted of Bedouins who lived in large tribes and were constanly fighting. There was a lack of unity among the Arabian Peninsula. The Bedouin tribes were polythesitic and animistic. Two major cities within the Peninsula were Medina and Mecca. Mecca was a city controlled by the Quraysh, a tribe with great economic and military strength. Mecca held the Kaaba, which was a shrine that changed religious hands over time. Mecca was a huge center of commercial and religious activity.
Islam is a faith founded by the prophet Muhammad. Muhammad was a wealthy merchant who was born in Mecca. He married Khadijah and led her caravan. Muhammad supposedly reccived a revelation from an angle who carried the message of Allah, or God. Muhammad spoke that there was only one god, Allah, and he, himslef was a prophet. In the begining, Islam grew slowly, but many slaves, women and many of the lower class came to belive in him. After conflicts with the local authorities, Muhammad had to leave Mecca and go to Medina. This was called the Hijrah or the Hegira, and along the way Muhammad gained many new followers. The Hijrah or the Hegira is regarded as a very important turning point in history. The numbers of Muhammads followers continued to grow as Muhammad was able to unify almost all of the Arabain Peninsula. Muhammad called for a Jihad, or a holy war against the Quraysh, led by the Muslims, or followers of Muhammad. The Muslims won this war and took back Mecca and the Kaaba. Muhammad had all of the polytheistic idols removed from the Kabba. From this day the call to prayer is from the Kabba and so is the belief in the Hajj, or pilgrimage.
The beliefs of Islam are centerd around the Quran, which is the Islamic holy book. The Quaran is a collection of words of Muhammad written by his followers in Arabic. The Five Pillars Of Islam are: Proclamation of faith, Prayer, Alms, Fasting, and Pilgrimage. Muslims are called to spread their faith, pray five times a day, be charitable, observe the holy fasting month of Ramadan and go on pilgrimage to the Kabba called the Hajj. Muslims also believe in the Sharia law, which is a body of law made up of the Quran and Hadith, Muhammads teachings. It gives followers morals, customs and establishes a religious expectation. Followers are not to drink alcohol or eat pork. Muslims also follow Imans, who are guides in faith.
Islam was a fast spreading faith noty only in the Arabian Peninula but the whole world. After Muhammad died, Abu Bakr was eletced the first Caliph. Caliphs were to protect and spread Islam. Later, after the reign of several popular “rightly guided” Caliphs, Muslims split over who would be their successors. The Sunnis believe that Caliphs could only be elected by consensus from Islamic elders. Shi’ites believed that Caliphs should only be descendants of Muhmmads genetic descent.
Islam spread through both trade and military conquest. The Jihad, or holy war justified the expansion of Islamic civilization by conquest. The Muslimms were successful because they had strong armies, they were driven by religion, the conquest surrounding empires that were already weak. People comverted to Islam because, it appealed to socail equality, appealed to the lower classes, people who converted would not have to pay the Jizya tax, and there was an already an active dislike of local governments. Islam took over the already weak Byzantine Empire, the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, Sicily, India, and Southeast Asia. North African Muslism were referred to as Moors, who were a threat to Southern Europe. The Battle of Tours was a major historical battle that prevented Muslims from moving into Western Europe, this occurred in 732 C.E. Though there was much military conquest, sponatenosue conversion occurred from trade and from Sufism who spread Islam. Ibn Battal was a prominent trader throughout the Islamic world, he spead Islam throught the areas he traded in. Muslism were religiously tolerant to those they conquered. They allowed Chrsistans and Jews to practice their faith as long as they paid the Jizya tax.
The first caliphate after the death of Muhammad and the four “righitly guided Calpihs” was the Umayyad Calphate or the Umayyad Dynasty. The capital during this period was in Damascus City. Here, Muslim-Arabs used a burcacery to govern. The Umayyads had a heavy preference for Arab Islams, and so Arab Islams dominated during this period. Arab-Islams ruled over non arabs in both the cities and the rural areas of the empire. During the Umayyad empire, the split between Sunnis and the Shi’ites occurred. Under this dynasty much conquest and expansion took place under the premise of the Jihad, or holy war.
The Abbasid Dynasty took over after the defeat of the Umayyad. The Abbasid shifted the capital to Baghdad. They also ended Arab-Islam domination. Both the Umayyad and the Abbasid Dynasties tollertated Dhimmis, or people of the “Book”, like Christians and Jews. Dhimmis could practice their faith as long as they paid the Jizya tax. They governed their large empire through a zizer and headed provinces with a Emin. The Islamic Sharia codes that originated from the Quran and the Hadith helped govern the empire. The Abbasid Dynasty is known as the golden age of Islam. Buildings like the Taj Mahal and the Dome of the Rock were made with the archaeological achievements of this age. A group of people called the Sufis were upset about the materialism of this age and decided to make their own remote musim comenity.The Abbasid empire had many innovations but still preserved grecco-roman culture.
Western Europe (Dark Ages):
The Middle Ages or the Dark Ages is a period of time used to describe Western Europe after the fall of Rome. During this time, not much was historically recorded, leaving historians in the “dark”. After the fall of Rome, Western Europe existed in a state of chaos and disorder. Germanic speaking tribes constantly pushed west and south fighting over land. After the treaty of Verdan, Europeans faced constant invasions from Germanic tribes, Magyars, Muslim Turks, and Vikings from Scandinavia who used the seas to pillage coastlines. During this time, Feudalism developed as a form of government.
The Carolingian Empire was a Frankish empire that included modern day France, Germany, Italy and Northern Spain from 768-814 C.E. This empire was one of the only periods of control and order that Western Europe experienced during the Middle Ages. It was founded and ruled by Charlemagne. Pope Leo named Charlemagne ``Holy Roman Emperor”, in 800 C.E. Charlemagne used his nobles and counts to rule over his vast empire. These counts had their own armies and would convey information to Charlemagne. Charlemagne created his own palace school, where nobles could learn how to read and write. He promoted education and literacy. He also spread Christanity throughout Western Europe. He had the first standardized coins and fixed taxes since the Roman Empire. Additionally, he helped preserve Grecco-Roman manuscripts to preserve past knowledge.
After the Carolingian Empire, Western Europe fell into Feudalism and Manorialism. Feudalism is an organized system of government in which Lords divided the land among lesser lords in return for service and loyalty. Noted, during this time there was no longer a standardized currency, so services and goods were in place of money. The Feudal Hierarchy was a social pyramid and is not as simple as it seems. First, Kings, a figurehead would give out land to lords for nobility. Kings were presumably on top. Under them would be lords, who gave land to Vassals for loyalty. Vassels then gave out land to knights, yet again for loyalty. Knights were then given a fief, or land, in exchange for military services. Last on the pyramid were serfs, peasants who were essentially bound to the land they farmed. The king may have been on top of the Pyramid, but the lords were the most powerful. The king was a symbol of power, or a figurehead, where the lords actually had the most control. Because there was no formal currency, goods and services were used. The lords would lend out land to the Vassals in turn for military protection against the Germaic Tribes. The Serfs would farm the land and pay part of their grain as tax in exchange for protection on the Manor.
Manorialism is an economic system as well as a system of life during the Middle Ages. Manorialism was self-sustaining and sufficient, as all that was needed for life was found on the Manor. The Manor was a small area of land where a local king would lend out land to lords and Vassals in exchange for knights protection and food farmed by the sefs. Life revolved around the Manner, as it was unsafe to leave it because of constant invasion from Germanic tribes. The serfs were not slaves, even though they may have been bound to the manor because of their debts, they stayed at the manor willingly. The Manor had a church, mills, rolling fields for farming, residence, a palace for the king, blacksmiths and monsasties, all things necessary for Medieval life. The manor was centered around farming, as the innovation of centralization helped farmers expand their crop outups. They were able to grow grains very well, they used iron plows, rotated their crops by season and used water mills. During this time, due to the influence of the Church and pre-existing social standards, society was a partachry, where women had little legal rights.
Medieval Art and Architecture was a result of the world around Medieval Societies. Early architectes used stone to express their faith and love of God. Much money, time and resources were devoted to the Church. There were two distinct styles of Medieval architecture, Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque architecture borrowed from early Christian architecture. It consisted of heavy thick walls, small windows, dark interiors and barrel vaulted ceilings. On the other hand, late 12th century Gothic architecture consisted of open and large buildings that were artistic and elaborate.These buildings, cathredials especially, featured impressive stained glass windows as well as flying buttresses, which were supports that helped hold up the elaborate structures. Medieval cathedrals served as a place of worship and gathering for people of that age. Medieval art was very different from the idealistic Grecco-Roman arts. It was flat, unrealistic, with simple line work. This art emphasized religion, storytelling and symbolism rather than just realism or beauty. Also, during the Middle Ages, the way society and the human body was seen changed due to Christanity. The Book or Hours was an illuminated prayer book that was decorated with religious scenes and day to day activities of Medieval people. These books were drawn and regarded as an art form.
As Medieval Western Europe was Christain, it is no wonder that the Cathoic Church would have been a very powerful force in Medieval life. The Roman Catholic Church was the most powerful institute in Western Europe. Lacking a strong central government, the Church was viewed as a strong central authority. People looked towards the Church for faith, hope, and stability during this time of social and political chaos. Inside of the Church, there was a hierarchy, the pope was on the top. The Church even had its own laws concerning worship, these were called the canon laws. The Church was the center for Catholics to receive the Seven Sacraments, those being: Baptism, Reconciliation, Communion, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. The Catholic Church was so powerful during this age that it attempted to suspend warfare on days important to Catholics, this was called the Truce Of God. The Church's social responsibilities were: homes for the old, orphaned, and ill, maintaining hospitals, coping with religious manuscripts, and maintaining universities. Its political responsibilities were: crowning and disposing of kings, the Truce of God. The Church also economically collected taxes.
The Crusades were a series of religious laws concerning Christains and Muslims. Under the order of Pope Urban the ii, thousands joined together to take back Jerusalem from the Seljack Turks, who through Islamic conquest, had taken it over. The Christians held Jerualsm for 88 years due to the Crusades. But, by the fourth wave of the Crusade the infinite idea of the wars were corrupted. European Christians attacked Eastern Orthodox Christains from the Byzantine Empire. They did this in the city of Constantinople in order to remove a trade rivale. Also, even though the crusades were only supposed to be targeted at Muslims, armies got out of hand and attacked Jews and even other Christians. Crusaders would supposedly go to heaven if they died during the crusade, serfs debts would be paid off, people would leave their manor if they attended a crusade, the thought of finding riches inspired many and kings had a chance to regain their lost kingdoms. Alexis, a Byzantine Emperor, asked Pope Urban for support regarding the Turk’s invasion, Pope Urban then sent thousands of untrained crusaders to his empire. To this he was greatly upset, so he withheld food for the crusaders unless they fought to regain his territory, further corrupting the ideas of the crusades.
Even though the crusades were a military failure as the Catholics did not capture and hold Jerusalem, there were still other positive and negative effects. Some Positive effects were: Crusader Kingdoms sprung up throughout the Middle East as a sign of European involvement in the Middle East and outside of Western Europe, italian city states received new wealth from trade, trade between east and west thoroughly increased, better shipbuilding appetites occur, a great breakdown of Feudalism occurred as monarchs started to again power across Europe. Negative effect sof the crudasdes were; decades of fighting, the rise of anti-semitism in Europe, anger towrds the Catholic Church amd the spread of the black death plague. The Crusades left a lasting legacy. For example, increased geographical knowledge and better maps occurred, new foods were introduced to Europe like lemons, fruits, spices, augar, rice, apricots. Some new textiles that were introduced to Europe were, damask, silks and fine furs. New military tactics and architecture spread from East to West. But, the bubonic plague also spread throughout the world.
The Black Plague, or Bubonic Plague, was a disease that had major consequences for Western Europe. The disease originated somewhere in China, during the mid 1300’s. The plague spread to almost all of Europe and the Middle East. The plague primarily spread through trade. As fleas that rode upon rats carried the bacteria. These rats would end up in ports from trade, therefore spreading the plague. Crusaders and missionaries also spread the plague, as constant travel was part of their lifestyle.The plague brought fevers, chills, swollen lymph nodes, blood in the lungs and a black tongue to anyone who contracted it. People tried to wear masks, distance themselves from others and stay clear of households that contracted the disease, but the unhygienic conditions of the time and overcrowded cities made it very easy for the plague to spread. The Black Plague ultimately infected ⅔ of Europe. Trade declined and so did the use of feudalistic governments. There was a great upbringing of anti semitism during this time as people blamed the plague on Jews out of fear. The Catholic Church was first a place of hope for people, but then anger was directed at it during the duration of the plague. Serfs also gained bargaining power as there were not enough workers to fill the fields as their wages increased.
Unlike the decline of other empires and civilizations, which were rooted in chaos, the end of the Medieval period ended with stability, as the mark of this era was its chaos. First, crusades led to a rise in power for kings, as they were able to take back some of the land that was previously lost to invaders. Due to trade routes also opened by the crusaders, the rise of the merchant class occurred. This made merchants more significant in society as it stimulated the economy and spread of ideas, goods, and technology. Because of this trade, Kings were able to tax and afford to build kingdoms. This meant that stable cities and villages were rising, with taxes and an official army. This rise in stability helped end a period of feudalism and manorialism. But, though the decline of the Middle Ages was mostly positive, there was a huge rise in anti-semitism due to misconseptrions and prejuces regarding the Black Death. This anti-semitism created a lasting diviosn dfurribg the decline of the middle ages.
Feudal Japan:
In the 16th century leaders known as the Great Unifiers “brought unity and peace to Japan''. These leaders were known as: Nobunga, who was a general who brought Unity to Honshu, Hideyoshi, who was a warlord who worked for unification but died before completion, and lastly Tokugawa, who completed unification. In 1603 the current Emperor named Tokugawa Shogun, or a head military leader. Shoguns had considerable power in Japan as the emperor was a figurehead with little power. This started the Tokugawa era in Japan which was a shift to centralized feudalism.
Also during the 16th century European Merchants arrived in Japan. Initially the Japanese welcomed them as the Europeans brought new goods and ideas. These ideas included the clock, glasses, tobacco, and weapons including muskets. European missionaries introduced the Japanese to Christianity. At first Christianity was welcome in Japan. Over time, many Japanese converted to Christianity. As a result of this conversion the emperor and Shogun felt threatened as they feared too much of the European influence would cause them to lose power. In response they issued the Edict of 1635. The Edict of 1635 officially isolated Japan from the rest of the world. No foreign ships and foreign people are allowed in, and no Japanese Merchant ships are allowed to leave the island. Christianity was entirely banned. There were some exceptions to the Edict, as Asian trade was not banned and the Dutch came to trade at Nagasaki.
During the 17th century, as the Tokugawa period counitined in Japan, the rest of the world still continued to evolve and innovate. Japan's agricultural productivity increased greatly, especially rice cultivation. A money economy developed and spread throughout the country. During this time merchants who were at the bottom of a rigid social class became wealthy. Due to the Edict of 1635, merchants became wealthy, not to but trading with foreign countries, but with the other islands of Japan. Cities like Edo, which is now known as Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka and small towns grew. Samurai who were a ruling class, were longer needed for military talent so instead they gradually became a powerful bureaucratic class. The Samurai previously acted as individual military powers who followed a code called the Bushido code. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Japan stayed in isolation. Edo became a large city with a rising political and economic center. Kyoto and Osaka too became growing metropolitan cities. Education also spread as daimyo, or lords who held large portions of land were able to set up schools within their domains, leading private academies to be founded. The choice to study Confucianism welcomed a new profession of a teacher and a new intellectual elite class which emerged. As merchants became wealthier and more influential, the ruling Samurai class became poorer and less influential. Popular art flourished and was reproduced in woodblock print form and widely circulated. Theater began to convey the urban decadence and this new content drew large audiences. The publishing industry also flourished during this era.
Tang and Song Dynasties:
The Chinese Tang and Song dynasties were two dynasties that took place from 600 to 1200. Both dynasties existed over diverse geography, As the large landmass that China covered consisted of plateaus, Plains basins, Foothills and mountains. rivers and lakes spanned most of China, the Yangtze which is the longest in China and the Yellow River which is just behind the Yangzi were both extremely important to the Chinese dynasties. The Tang Dynasty was considerably larger than the Song Dynasty and it came first chronologically.
The Tang Dynasty existed from 618 to 907. Some of their greatest contributions were their extensive roads, restoring the Imperial bureaucracy and bringing back the civil service exam from the Han which caused the return of scholarly Gentry. Even though the scholar Gentry class rose there were still aristocratic families within the government meaning that there was some corruption in the civil service exam testing systems. During the 800s, there was anti-buddhist backlash where Buddhist monasteries were attacked and Emperors took steps to Halt the growth of Buddhism. Trade became increasingly important along the Indian Ocean where Chinese junks, which were huge commercial vessels at the time aided cultural diffusion with Korea and Japan. There was great urban growth and new public works. The use of the civil service exam prompted greater social mobility among the social class. The social classes were as follows: the monarchs, the Gentry, Farmers, Artisans and lastly merchants. The civil service exam also prompted a Revival of Confucianism which threatened the influence of Buddhism. Eventually the Tang and Song took steps to halt the growth of Buddhism, but later something called neo-confucianism formed which was a blend of Confucianism and Buddhism as a syncretic faith.
The Song Dynasty spanned from 960 to 1297 and its founder was Taizu. Song rulers promoted the interest of the Confucianism bureaucracy, which was quite elaborate and expensive. The Civil Service examination system was further regularized during this dynasty. The Song Empire never matched the Tang Dynasty in terms of the extent of land control or its military power. The Song Dynasty had several conflicts with the nomadic Mongols to the north, because of this they had to pay a tribute, which was a peace offering with the north to avoid conflict. Trade further expanded and a tribute was collected from nearby kingdoms like those of Korea. During the 11th century paper money was introduced. Silk, cotton, and Porcelain were also manufactured
During this time, both the Song and Tang dynasties had major Innovations in technology, culture, arts and engineering. But, some of these Innovations were not positive. One cultural innovation that was not positive grew China’s patriarchal society. This was the practice of foot binding. Foot binding effectively secluded women by literally removing their physical Mobility this was typical of upper-class women; women in both dynasties were also excluded from the education system and dust from public life. Both China’s dynasties were agrarian with great production and rice and silk. The Grand Canal helps further production of agriculture. These dynasties were also a time of engineering as Canal systems, dams, Bridges gunpowder, compassws, the mechanical clock, woodblock printing, porcelain, reinforcements of the great wall, and stronger support beams all occurred at this time. New poetry by Lebo occurred; there was also a new rise in landscape painting as well as a new interest in classical theater.
The Tang and Song dynasties fell as their central governments weakened, they lacked the ability to maintain border safety, which led to Mongol invasions. These invasions unlaimity led to the rule of China by the Mongols.
The Mongol and Timur Empires:
The Mongols were nomadic Warriors from the Central Asian steppe; these were north of China. The Mongols lived in portable dwellings called Yurts; these were portable tents. Before Genghis Khan, the Mongols were not unified and there was much fighting between Clans, the Mongols were known for being violent, ruthless and fierce.
Genghis Khan's original name was Temüjin. He received the name Genghis Khan, which means great king, for uniting the Mongol tribes all under his control. Genghis Khan established order within his Empire by creating laws for all people to follow and consequences if people did not, this gave order and stability for his Empire. Mongol children were taught to read and write, the laws, called Yasas, were written down for all to see. The Mongols followed the traditional Shamanisric beliefs but tolerated all different faiths. Genghis Khan was seen as ruthless and vicious by many because of the way he expanded his Empire. Genghis Khan expanded by Invasion and use of force. He used threats and Promises of violence to scare people. The Mongols were very skilled horse warriors and Bowman. Expert Bowman formed a large part of the Mongol armies. Mongols used mock retreats and sneak attacks in order to defeat enemies. Overall, the Mongol Army was very well organized.
The large Mongol Empire spanned almost all of Asia. The empire was divided into Khanates, which were like provinces. One of these Khanates was the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde was led by Batu, who was a grandson of Genghis Khan. The Golden Horde ruled over the Muslim turkish population and conquered Southern Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Eventually, due to the Muslim Turkish influence, Batu converted to Islam. The Golden Horde frequently fought with another Khanate, that being the il-Khanate. The il-Khanate was led by Hulegu, who was also a grandson of Genghis. The il-Khanate Eventually captured Baghdad in 1258 which ended the Abbasids, a Muslim Dynasty. They controlled much of the Middle East, which was then conquered and controlled by the il-Khanate. Initially, Mongol faiths were very different from the Muslims, causing tension between the two faiths. Eventually the il-Khanate was taken over by the Golden Horde.
Pax Mongolia was a golden and stable age of the Mongol Empire. By the 1300s, Mongols brought law, order and stability to Asia. Imperial post riders were able to communicate messages over the large empire through a series of post offices and vast roads built by the Mongols. The Mongols reopened the silk road and made it safe for traders and travelers.
Mongols took rule over both China and Russia, but the way they ruled differed from location. China was conquered and controlled by Kublai Khan, another one of Genggis’s grandsons. Kublai founded the Yuan dynasty. Kublai led a lavish lifestyle that differed from the Mongolians nomadic lifestyle. The Mongols rebuilt Chinese cities, roads, and canals, while also aiding the chinese people. The Chinese resented Mongol rule as they believed someone of their own nationality should lead their nation. The Chinese were angered by the removal of government jobs and the civil service exams. But in Russia, Mongol rule was different. Mongols entered Russia in the 1200’s with great slaughter and carnage of Russiah cities. For example, in the large city of Kiev, thousands alone were killed. Russia was indirectly ruled by the Golden Horde, as Mongols allowed Russian princes to rule as long as they were loyal and paid tributes. Mongol rule in Russia was isolated from developments in the Middle East, Western Europe and Asia, but it did unify Russia.
The Empire of Timur, also known as Tamerland, was an empire was Mongol founded, but had generally diverse people within it. The Empire rose out of the Khanate of Jagadie, from Central Asia. The Timur empire was originally founded by a Mongol tribe, but it conquered lands that were possesised by Muslim Turks. The Empire founded its capital; in 1370, at Samarkand. They lead military campaigns of expansion and plunder. Evenuntally the Timur defeated the powerful Golden Horde. The empire invaded Northern India and defeated and captured the Ottoman Empire.
The Ming Dynasty and the Last Dynasty:
The Ming Dynasty ruled during the Post Classical era, and was officially founded in 1368. The dynasty was founded by HongWu, who was the son of a peasant and a Buddist rebel. He defeated the Mongols with his army, therefore, establishing the Ming Dynasty. The Dynasty had major developments in trade, had a major population boom, and a large economic boom.
The Ming Dynasty was located in the West Himalayan mountain range and south of the Gobi Desert. Both the Yangtze and the Yellow river continued to be important. Like the dynasties before, the Ming dynasty was agrarian. It formed along its two major rivers, grew Champa rice and used sericulture in order to feed its growing population. Throughout the Ming Dynasty there was an increase in population due to new agricultural products. Peasant lives were improved by Hong Wu's reforms as he provided untaxed lands but, later Emperors did not keep up with this. Neo Confucianism reinforced the social order of the Ming Dynasty, for example the patriarchy society continued as upper class women were confined to the house as well as the continuation of foot binding. Due to the patriarchal society there was emphasis on women bearing male children. Merchants used wealth from trade to purchase land, but they were still looked down upon, as farmers were held higher than merchants in the Ming social pyramid. Hong Wu’s goal was to erase all traces of Mongol influence. This led to the spread of the Middle Kingdom idea and ethnocentrism. The capital of the Ming dynasty was Beijing, also known as The Forbidden City. Under HongWu, the civil service exam and scholarly gentry were restored. The Ming dynasty received new crops from the rest of the world like potatoes, corn and peanuts. At this time sea trade became highly developed and trade stayed as a large continuity even after the voyages of Zheng He had ended. Many foreign peoples and merchants did business in the cities of Macao and Canton. Merchants hoped to gain special trading privileges, such as trading with the Portuguese. Chinese accepted silver from Europeans in return for their Gold. Overtime, the balance of trade shifts in China's favor; almost all of the world's silver could be found in China. China was known as the “Silver Sink” of the world. The Ming Dynasty practiced East Asian philosophies like Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. These philosophies were practiced separately or in conjunction, which is called Neo Confucianism. Eventually Christian missionaries arrived aboard European ships, these people were called Jesuits, and they attempted to convert the upper class to Christianity, but they were not very successful.
Later on in the Empire’s history, Emperor Yong Le sent admiral Zheng He on expeditions to spread the Chinese culture, collect silver and other riches, start new trade, but most importantly show the world how great China was. These expeditions were huge, with thousands of soldiers, artisans, merchants and doctors as a part of those who traveled. These expeditions opened the world to chinese trade, and continued for 28 years. The next Emperor called back on these expeditions, and he severely limited foreign interaction. This was never a full isolation; it still setback China many years. Most records of these vast expeditions were destroyed, to prevent future generations from copying this introduction. No one truly knows why the Ming stopped these expeditions, but there is some speculation. Missionaries may have spread religions that threatened China’s governmental power, similar to Japan. Or, China, which was ethnocentric, evidently felt they had nothing to gain, as these expeditions were expensive and time consuming. Two major cities for trade for the Dynasty were Canton and Marco, these two cities remained open to trade even after China withdrew to itself.
The Ming Dynasty fell as imperial leadership became increasingly corrupt, public work projects were ignored, peasants overtaxed for their land and labor, evelatual slowing of trade, mass famines and great starvations, and the influence of natural disasters. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, the last Dynasty to ever hold rule in China was the Qing Dynasty. Manchus conquered Beijing during the Ming’s era of weakness in 1644, and the empire lasted until 1911. The Qing kept similar policies to the Ming. The Qing had a strong military, trade within China due to the Ming’s withdrawal, and taxes. The Qing dynasty let China fall behind the world as it followed the Ming’s policy of non-total isolation.
African Classical/Post Classical Civilizations:
Africa has been the assumed place of human origin, so it has a long history before the Classical and Post-Classical civilizations have occurred. Around 5000 B.C.E, agriculture developed, around 3000 B.C.E, people moved into West Africa, and lastly in 2700 B.C.E, the Kush civilization developed. The Geography of Africa is very diverse, as it varies in ethnicity and geographic features. Africa is divided into four different sections: West Africa, East Africa, North Africa and Central/Southern Asia. Africa is also historically divided into North Africa, for its links to the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa, under the Sahra desert.
Until the 19th century Europeans referred to Africa as the Dark Continent, as it was a place of mystery and myth. Prior to that time, or until Europeans had explored the interior of Africa, the Western Hemisphere considered Africa to be a place of large groups with no culture. It is now known that human life began in Africa and an advanced civilization existed in Africa before the arrival of Europeans .
Kush, Axon and Bantu, Pre-Classical African Civilizations:
Around 2,000 B.C.E, a busy trade Network had arisen between Egypt and the area to the South known as Nubia, even though Nubia was subject to Egyptian control for many centuries it freeded itself around 1000 BCE and became the independent state of Kush. Kush was the first African civilization after Egypt, it was first conquered by Egypt, but later came to conquer and take control of Egypt. This empire spanned from 1700 B.C.E to 500 B.C.E. Its capital cities were Napata and Meroe, and their society was modeled after Egyptian society. They were one of the few African civilizations at this time to have iron technology. Another African civilization was Axum, which stood from 500 B.C.E to 600 C.E. This society was a mix of many different ethnicities, those being: Kush/Nubian, Arabian and Semectic peoples. This empire was founded in the Ethopean highlands where they controlled trade. Some successful cities were those of Adulis, Matar and Axum. Eventually, a great king known as King Ezana converted to Christanity, prompting the rest of the nation to do the same.
Around 3000 years ago, a group of farmers and herders began to migrate from West Africa further down South. These people were known as the Bantu people. Since the beginning of human history, humans have migrated. Things that persuade humans to migrate out of an area are called push factors, and things that draw people to a new area are called pull factors. The Bantu people most likely migrated due to slash and burn farming running fertile fields, and a population boom. The Bantu people brought farming, herding practices, iron tools and their language down to the nomadic people of Southern Africa. They spread their culture and ideas throughout sub-Saharan Africa. They did have some conflict with groups of people in Southern Africa as they spread.
Post Classical, West African Trading Kingdoms:
During the Post Classical Era, Africa began to develop two massive trade routes: the Indian Ocean Trade Route and the Sub-Saharan Trade routes. Nations fought over these trade routes as they were the biggest import and export of salt and gold, which were both precious in Africa at the time. Islam also became very preventlent in West Africa durring this time due to trade with the Middle East. The three most prevalent kingdoms of this time were Ghana, Mali and Songhai. These kingdoms had empires based on gold, a central government and strong armies. All of these empires used African Griots, or oral historians who passed history through generations and advised kings.
Ghana existed from the 8th-11th centuries and its capital was Kumbai. It was the first African kingdom to arise in West Africa. Ghana grew to become a great empire that was ruled by a monarchy with a strong central government. Ghana had a strong army and a large Bureaucracy. It collected taxes of salt and gold and collected tributes of lesser empires. Evenntally, its rulers, and theredore its people, convernted to Islam.
Mali existed from the 13-15th Century. Its capital was Timbuktu, which was a center of trade and learning. Mali was founded by Sundiata Keita, but its most famous leader was Mansa Musa. Mansa Musa ruled from 1312-1337. He was a skilled military leader and he and his government took over the gold-salt trade as Ghana weakened. He put down rebellions within his empire and continued to hold control over the sub-Saharan salt-gold trade. He divided the empire into provinces and he spread Islam not only to to his nation but to Africa as he went on a great hajj to Mecca where he spread his faith. Mali had a strong central government, a strong army and was ruled under a monarchy.
The kingdom of SongHai spanned from the 15-16th century. Its capital was Gao and its founder was Sunni Ali. It built up its large empire and took control of trade as Mali weakened. It govereded with a central government, collected taxes and had a bureaucracy. SongHai conquered TimBuktu and Djenne. They were very Islamic and very commercial as a nation. Askia Muhammad took over Songhai after Sunni Ail.
The Trans-Saharan trade network, also known as the gold/salt trade, linked West Africa to the Middle East and Medderanian/Europe. The Berbers, or mullsim nomads of Africa helped expand and navigate the vast trade routes. Salt, gold, ivory, horses and slaves were traded through the use of camels. The volume of trade thoroughly increaed as Islam spread across the route.
Just like the West African civilizations, the East Coastal African cities like those of Kilwa, Malidi and Mogadishu also developed due to trade. These kingdoms and city states traded among themselves up and down the African coast. The Swahili city states were created from trade among the Indian Ocean, trade between Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanaibar flourished from the Indian Ocean Trade routes. Ivory, gold and slaves were traded to Arabs up the cost and in the Middle East. Africa aquired chinese porcelin, iron work technology and the spread of Islam. Zimbabwe eventually became the most powerful out of all East African civilizations. It was based in Agriculture, grazing and gold. Zimbabwe traded with Swahili states, Persia, China and the Middle East.
Latin American Post-Classical Civilizations, Mayan, Inca, Aztec:
The Mayans were a civilization in Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and South America from around 300-900 C.E. They settled within the Andes Mountains and along the Amazon River. The Mayans were especially located in the Yucatan Peninsula. The Mayasn were agrarian and used irrigation. They also used terrace farming and slash and burn techniques to farm. The Mayans had a well defined social hierarchy that was patriarchal. Even though it was a patriarchal society, women had some roles in religious ceremonies. There were a few women rulers under the premise that if there were no men available to rule, a woman could take the throne. The Mayans did not have a strong central army as their only motivation for fighting was to take captives. But, men were expected to fight when needed. The Mayans were a group of decentralized cities, two of them being Chichen, Itza and Tikal. These cities and city-states fought with each other for tributes and captives. Rulers of these city states had both political and priest-like roles, as the government was closely linked to religion in most Meso-Amercian civilizations. The Mayan religion was polythesisic, worshiping many gods and deities. They also had practices of animism, the worship of animalistic and nature-like spirits, in their religion. They built elaborate pyramids and temples to their gods. On these pyramids, the Mayans took human sacrifices as some sort of repentance of sin, this was why they were always in need of captives and slaves. The Mayans had advanced technology despite the fact that they had no tools other than hand tools. Their architecture was inspired by the Olmec Mother-civilization who was previously in the area. They built elaborate palaces, pyramids, plazzas and temples out of limestone bricks. They had developed a calendar system to mark the dates of their religious ceremonies, and they also developed a number system with the concept of zero as a place holder. Also, they developed amazing astronomical skills allowing them to predict the phases of the moon and eclipses. It's not exactly clear how the Mayans came to an end, but it is assumed that flooding, environmental disaster and overcrowding brought the Mayans to their end.
The Aztecs settled in the valley of Mexico around 1200 C.E. Their capital was the powerful city of Tenochtitlan which was settled on lake Texcoco. The Aztecs settled in a swampy lake with more mud than soil, this made farming and finding usable land for structures difficult. Because of these challenges, the Aztecs had developed some of the best engineering and architecture in the Americas at this time. They were an agrarian society that relied on complex irrigation systems for freshwater. They developed floating gardens called chinampas, which allowed crops to be rotated. The Aztecs had well developed public works, extensive pyramids, temples, dikes for controlling floodwater, and support platforms for buildings. The Aztecs had a strict social hierarchy: the emperor on top, nobles like military leaders and government officials, next were commoners and last slaves and captives. The warrior elite were very influential but there was still some mobility. The Aztec social pyramid also had tribal clan influence. Women had some rights, they were respected as weavers and healers. Women could also own property. The Aztecs were ruled under a theocratic monarchy, or a monarchy ruled by religious/political rulers. Rulers were chosen by a council, not by hereditary rule. The Aztec was divided into loose provinces and city states. The Aztecs had a harsh legal system and they were very militaristic. They enacted a tribute systerm where they took lands and remained in military service and surrendering land, local leaders stayed in power. Religion was closely intertwined with politics, and the ruler was seen as divine. The Aztecs were polytheisic. They built temples and pyramids from their gods. They performed mass human sacrificial rituals where they slayed enslaved people and captives utop their temples. There were also aspects of cannibalism in these religious rituals. These rituals and temples were religious, but they also had political motives as well, like that of inspiring fear of the Aztecs and showing their power. The Aztecs had long distance trade from throughout their empire. They were an agrarian based economy focusing on corn, squash and beans which are known as the three sister crops. The Aztecs needed to supply food for a very large population. Overexpansion, lack of technology were some of the errors that brought the Aztecs to an end. But, the conquering of the Aztecs and the continual spread of diseases from the Spanish truly put the Aztec Empire to an end.
The Inca were a South American civilization located in the Andes mountains, which is now known as Peru and Chile. Since they lived in the mountains, they had to overcome many engineering challenges. They were an agrarian civilization who built irrigation systems called Waru Waru systems. These redirected and stored water. They also developed terrace farming. Another great feat of Incan engerienung would be the Carpa nan Inca, which was a series of roads and suspension bridges that connected the empire. Its most famous city was its mountaintop city of Machu Picchu, but its capital was Cuzoo. The Incas used provinces and a bureaucracy to better organize their empire. The Incans developed a very strict social hierarchy, it was patriarchal and captured people had to assimilate into Incan society. The Incas developed a political system now known as Inca socialism, where the government used store houses to make sure no one went hungry but people had to work for this. The Militia system was a system used to enforce work on all people. This leads to amazing public works but very strict laws. The Inca governed with an all powerful governor, called the Sapa Inca who acted as a king that was linked with the Incan gods. The Icans were polytheism and animism, with reverence for their sun god. They built temples and pyramids and enacted human sacrifices. Religion has a very close connection to the government. The Incans had many riches based in silver and gold, and they kept census records of their empire. They did have limited trade within themselves. They developed an advanced calendar system and math. They developed a certain piece of technology called the quipu, which was a series of notes used to keep track and count. The Incan developed a school to teach the Incan language and the use of the quipu. The Incans were weakened by civil war, but the real reason for the end of the Incan civilization was Spanish conquistadors who came with advanced military technology and spread diseases.
Muslim Gunpowder Empires:
Between the 14-16 centuries, three distinct empires arose. These three empires; Ottomans, Sadavid and Mughal, were known as the Muslim Gunpowerder Empires for their gunpowder based artilirary and Islamic faith. These empires shared culture as they grew out of nomadic Turkish peoples and spoke different variations of Turkish-based languages. All these empires also took advantage of the power vacuum left from the decline of the Mongol Khanates.
The first and longest lasting of the three empires was the Ottomans, whose reign spanned from 1299-1923 C.E. The Ottman empire started as a small state from Anatolia and descended from Turkish nomads. The Ottoman Empire was founded by an Islamic military leader called Osman. Osman was a Ghaiz, who believed that he must conquer non-muslim lands. The ottoman Empire's capital was Istanbul, which was previously the conquered state of Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire acted as a “middleman”, as they controlled the trade of Asian goods to Europe through the Bosporus Strait. They developed public works and irrigation systems as they were a very wealthy empire. The Ottoman society was a patriarchy where women were expected to veil their heads in public, and women were primarily excluded in areas of living called purdah. Another instance of the patriarchy was the institution of harem and harem politics, where women would live secluded from men and compete to be found by a husband. The Ottomans were kind to conquered people and they were religiously tolerant of the “people of the books' ': Jews and Christaisns. Christains and Jews lived in separate millet neighborhoods where they paid an additional Jizya tax. The Ottomans empire was very large, and therefore ethnically diverse. The Ottaman empire was ruled with a strong centralized monarchy and an aiding bureaucracy. The bureaucracy was mostly made up of high-ranking warrior aristocrats who were so powerful that they even controlled loans, division and food. The Sultan, or king, ruled the government in a dynastic-like succession. The Sultan’s closest adviser was known as the Vizier. In 1453, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople and renamed it as their capital of Istanbul. Here, they turned the Hagia Sophia into a Mosque. The Ottomans had a very powerful army. This army used janissaries, or christaisn boys that were forced to take up arms in the Ottoman army, learn Turkish and convert to Islam. These boys had the chance to rise through military ranks and become either a military officer or an aristocrat. This system of finding janissaries was called the Deshime system. One of the most well regarded Ottoman rulers was Sueinam the Magnificent. He ruled 46 years at the peak of the empire, during a golden age called pax ottemina. He followed Islamic Sharia laws and expanded the empire. The Ottoman economy was based on trade and some agriculture. They had an extreme influence on trade between Euopre and Asia as their location allowed them to regulate trade. They used bazzars, or extensive marketplaces to sell merchandise. The Ottomans were negatively affected by the global silver and gold trade that erupted from the discovery of the Americas. The Ottomans were mostly Sunni Muslims but due to the size of their empire, were religiously diverse. Arts and literature flourished during the golden age of Suliman. Palaces, schools, public works and hospitals were built as the Ottomans borrowed ideas from those they conquered. The Ottoman empire came to an end after it was weakened by World War One, when it eventually collapsed.
The Safavid was the second Mulsim Gunpowder Empire to arise, and it was based in Persia or today, in Iran. The empire was south of Caspian and a little east of the Ottoman empire which existed at the same time. The empire's capital was Isfahan and the empire was founded by Shah Ismail. The empire was agrarian with irrigation and public works. The empire, like that of the Ottomans, arose from nomadic Turks. The empire was governed with a monarchy, where the shah, or king, had complete control. Shah Abbas was the most well regarded Shah as he expanded the empire during a time of stability. The empire had a large army and had conflicts with the Ottomans. The Safavids used a special type of cavalry called the qizilbash. Their army was referred to as the “red heads'' due to a type of garment they wore. The Safavid had a bureaucracy and a strong warrior aristocracy. The Safavid society was made up of both Turkish and Persian culture, where the Turks were primalery the warrior elites and the Persians were involved in bureaucracy. Like the Ottomans, the Safavid empire was a patriarchal society, where women veiled their heads in public, followed the purdah laws and lived in anderums, an extreme separation from society. The Safavid economy was based on agriculture and trade, as the government controlled trade. The capital city, Isfahan was an economic center of trade. The primary goods produced by the Safavid were textiles, like those of silk, fine cloth and linens, and persian rugs. Merchant guilds developed that would regulate trade and silk production. Like the Ottomans, the Safavids were negatively affected by the gold and silver trade that occurred after the discovery of the Americas. The Safavids were Shi’ite Islams, with very little religious tollerance for other sects of Islam and other religons.The Safavids regulary fought the Ottomans to correct their interpatatuon of Islam, as the Ottomans were Sunni Muslims. The Safivds brought in Europeans to assist with military technologies in order to help them defeat the Ottomans, which they ultimately could never do. Due to the mix of Turks and Persians, there was some aversion in the society. The government had a close relationship with Islam. Within the Empire Arabic and Persian languages were spoken. The Safavids were known for their elaborate and eloquent architecture and art, which used calligraphy and mosaics. The Safivds also had a large emphasis on learning within their empire. Eventually, religious conflict, weak rulers, and attacks from the Ottomans brought the empire to an end.
The Mugal Empire was the third Muslim gunpoweder empire to arise. This empire was originally from modern day Afghanistan, but later moved on to rule North India and Pakistan. Before the Mugal Empire, the Dehli Sultans brifly united Northern India and it was the first out of the waves of Muslim invaders. But, in 1523 the Mugal leader, Babur conquered the Northern Delhi Sultan and established the Mugal Empire. The capital of the new Mugal empire became Delhi. The empire had a major role in Indian Ocean trade and overland trade. The empire was also agrarian with developed irrigation systems and public works. The Mugal empire was ruled by an autocratic government, where one ruler had absolute power. The Mugal dynasty was Sunni Muslim, and becuase they ruled obver India, most of the population was Hindu. So, the Mugals were minority Muslims that ruled over a majority Hindu population. The Mugals had a strong army and used gunpowder military technology. The Mugals spread Islam by fighting and conquiring. The Empire reached its height under the ruler Akbar who was very tolerant to those of other religions, especially Hindus. Akbar supported harmony between the Muslims and Hindus. Akbar tried to create a theology that incorporated all the major religions that were popular in his religion at the time, it was called the “Divine Faith'' . During the rule of Akbar there was a golden age in which literature and architecture flourished. But soon after him, the strict rule of Shah Jahan. Jahan is most known for the construction of the Taj Mahal, which was an elaborate palace and tomb he ordered to be built. Shah Jahan’s son, Aurangezeb started the decline of the empire with his rule. He expanded the empire, but increased anti-hindusim practices and taxes as he reversed religious tollerance to Islam only. The Mugal Society was based on Turkish, Mongol and other central Asian Ethnicities. There was also Persian influence as the empire was ethnically diverse. There was general tension between the Hindu population and the Muslim ruling class due to class and religose diffrences. The caste system remained an important part of the Mugal social hierarchy. The empire was overall a patriarchal society, like the other Muslim Gunpowder empires before it. Even though it was a patriarchal society, wives of nobles had some political power. Women were under Muslim Purdah laws and noble women lived in harem housing that isolated them. Hinduism also reinforced the low status of women. There was also the practice of Sati, or ritutal suicide by widowed wives. The empire’s economic system was based on agriculture and trade. The Mugal Empire’s agriculture was based on cotton and indigo crops. Land was given to the people in return for loyalty to the empire. The empire traded overland and the Indian Ocean trade routes. The empire also had extensive trade with European nations, which eventually led to the empire's downfall. Even though the empire was led by Sunni Muslims, Hinduism was still a very prominent religion. Due to the transfer of faiths, a new faith known as Sikhism devloped, which was a combination of Islam and Hinduism. The Mugal empire practiced many different forms of arts during its golden age, such as artistic miniatures of nature, courtroom, political and religious scenes. Architecture was a blend of Perisoan, Hindu and Islamic traditions. Eventually the empire fractured due to religious tensions and because of trade with Europe, the British conquered and colonized the empire, officially putting it to an end.
The Renaissance:
The Renaissance, or the European Rebirth was a period of revival, wealth and art. There were many causes of the Renaissance: the crusades paved new trade routes and brought new ideas to Europe, a sharp decline in feudalism, and the endings of the Black Death. The Renaissance especially took place in Italy, as its location in the Medditerian Sea led to the rise of its city states. Venice, Florence and Milian were especially influential in the Italian Renaissance. The influence of trade increased the wealth of these city states. A Wealthy merchant class became patrons of the arts helping to fund the arts and the sciences. During this time, more secular ideas arose due to inventions like the printing press, and people stepped away from the Catholic Church as it became corrupt and less influential. The Renaissance was an elaborate golden age that focused on the arts, literature and the sciences. It was a break from the dark Middle Ages and has been described as a spring after the long winter of the Middle Ages. During this time, there was a revival of classicism, which was the return to GreoRoman ideas. This formed a new genre of arts called neo GrecoRoman, where neo simply means new. Unlike the Middle Ages, the Renaissance focused on the individual, instead of religion and the afterlife.
Following the Crusades, trade increased between Western Europe, the Middle East and Asia as Europeans began to develop a desire for foregn goods like textiles and spices. The bettering of technology like better ships called caravels made traveling and trading much easier. The end of Feudalism, the slowing of the Black Death and better food production allowed for an increase in population forming new towns and cities. These new towns and cities became the centers of the Renaissance. The formation of World Banks allowed merchants to travel and trade further differences. These banks and the Knights Templar, which was a group of Christian knights, helped make trade safe. Leagues like the Hanseatic League seeked to relate goods that were being traded. Due to the rise of wealth, a rise in the middle class occurred. The middle class relied on the marketplace, which differed from the previous manor life during the middle ages. The bourgeoisie were middle class merchants who lived in walled cities and played a large role in city life. Specialized skills like those of artisans became incredibly important and so guilds arised. Guilds were an association of people who worked with common trades, sold common items and made similar things. Guilds regulated prices, quality of goods, weights and measures as well as general business practices. Artisans followed a three step working process where they stayed as an apprentice, moved along to a journeyman or a day worker and then finally a master.
During the Renaissance literature firmly developed. Two important books were The Prince and The Courtier. The Prince by Niccole Machiavelli was a guidebook for rulers. Machiavelli was a Florence diplomat who worked for the influential Medici family. The Medicic family was a very rich and powerful family that did not directly rule, but influenced governments. This family especially funded the arts. The Prince was written so that Machiavelli could get back within the inner circle of the Medici family, after he was banished for political and social reasons. The book stated that rulers should focus on war and ruling. And that it is optimal to be both loved and feared, but if a ruler must choose they should choose to be feared. This book influenced European rulers and justified absolute monarchies. The Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione gave the ideal way of life for a renaissance man. It was a guide for noble men and it discussed the qualities a good nobleman should possess. According to Baldassare Castiglione, a noble should be well rounded in arts, music, literature, horse riding, speaking and general intellect. Another influential author was Petrach, who was the creator and author of Humanistic philosophy, which focused on the individual and what the individual could accomplish. This differed from the middle ages because it was a secular philosophy that focused not on religion and afterlife, but on one's own potential.
The art of the Renaissance Era differed from the art of the medieval era quite heavily. Medieval art was typically very religious with darker colors and perspective. Where art from the Renaissance used new techniques. Some of these techniques like sfumato, chiaroscuro, naturalism, and perspective were all used to emphasize the individual and Greco-Roman ideas. Paintings depicted scenes from everyday life, portraits and scenes of average people with depth, color, details, and realism. Renaissance art focuses less on religion than what was created during the medieval era. There are two eras of Renaissance art, the early Renaissance where paintings bridged the gap between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. And secondly, the High Renaissance which represents a culmination of artistic exploration, where artists started to branch off with new ideas.
The Catholic Church played a large role in life during the Middle Ages, but during the Renaissance corruptions of the church turned people away. For example, priests and the pope became morally corrupt, as they became worldly and obsessed with luxury. The religiously illegal Saint worship occurred where Saints and the holy Virgin Mary were held over Jesus himself. The masses, or Sunday service, was held only in Latin which made it hard for Italian and Greek speaking individuals to understand their faith. Also the sale of indulgences, which were certificants sold for salvation and the forgiveness of sins occurred, which was highly scrutinized by others. The biggest salesman of indulgences was Johann Tetzel, who was a priest notorious for the sale of indulgences. A great corruption of several popes occurred where nepotism, and the selling of church offices occured. Also, pluralism, where more than one Pope was in position at a time. The Catholic Church also demanded high taxes from governments and people where they used this money not on religion but worldly based ideas. These corruptions caused people to publish writing books, new philosophies and even new religions.
The Praise of Folly was one of the first writings that criticized the Church. Written by Erasmus, who was a priest and humanist used satire to address the abuse within the Church. But, one of the most historically significant criticisms of the Church was by Martin Luther, who not only criticized the Church, but instead led an entire new religion, reformation and turning point of history. Martin Luther was a german monk who traveled to Rome and witnessed the corruption and abuses of the Cathoic Church first hand. He was appalled by what he saw, so he went back to Germany where he wrote “Disputations on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences'' which is more commonly known as the “95 Theses''. These were a list of 95 theses or complaints against the Church. Luther posted these theses on the doors of a church in Lichtenburg in the year 1517. This created the protastant reformation, which was several religious breakaways from the Catholic Church. The Church was upset at the complaints of Luther, and called him to meet at the town of Worms, in a meeting called the Diet of Worms. Here, the Pope issued a Papal Bull, or decadence, in order to try to get Luther to recant, or to take back, his criticism of the Church. Luther would not take back what he wrote, and he was then therefore excommunicated from the Church. Luther then formed his own religion called Lutheranism, a form of Christanity. By this time many people, and governments started to follow Lurther. Lutheranism believed that salvation was only possible through faith in Christ, where the Catholic Church believed that one must have faith and then a follow of good works, to achieve salvation. Luther believed that God could only determine salvation and all religious authority rested within the Bible. Luther recognized only two of the seven original sacraments of the Church, baptism and communion. He also believed that individuals should interpret the Bible for themselves and there should be no Pope. Not only commoners supported Luther, but governments also. The German Princes during the Peace of Augsburg recognized Lutheranism and then decided that the religion of the ruler would then be the religion of the people. Lutheranism and protestantism in general were very appealing to governments as they no longer would have to pay taxes to the Catholic Church. Northern Europe became mostly protostant, where Southern Europe remained Catholic.
Two other Protestant forms of Chrsitinaty were founded around this time, Anglicanism and Calvinism. Anglicanism, also known as the Church of England was founded in the 1520’s by King Henry Vlll. King Henry despirty wished for a son, but his marriage only resulted in daughters. So, he secretly married Anne Bolyn and requested an annulment through the Catholic Church for his first marriage, the Church declined this annulment. Henry then passed the Act of Supremacy which created the Church of England and broke England away from the Pope. Here, the King was the head of the Church instead of the Pope. The Bible is translated from latin and it is now the ultimate authority, Priests can also marry and divoce is permitted. England now became a Protestant country where church and state was not separated. Calvinism was founded in Switzerland by Jean/John Calvin in the 1530’s. Calvin was a priest, lawyer and humanist who was originally Catholic, but converted to Protestantism. He wrote the “Institutes of Chrsitian Religion”, where he stated his beliefs and his belief in a theocratic government. Cavin believed that humans are weak and sinful and that people cannot work for salvation, but instead they are predestined to go to heaven or hell. The elect, or people already selected for salvation before birth should serve as role models. Or, everyone should act like they are going to heaven. Calvin believed that all who did not follow Calvinism were traitors of God. Calvinism spread throughout East Europe and was most preventlet in the city of Geneva. Calvinists in France were and are called Huguenots and Calvinists in Scotland are called Presbyterians.
In response to the Protestant reformation, the Catholic Church set up the Inquisition and the Auto de fe. The Inquisition Court was set up to try heretics, this mainly happened in Spain where punishments for heretics were severe punishments. People found guilty would be tortured and skilled. This is also called the Spanish Inquisition. The Auto de fe, meaning “Act of Faith'' was the public condemnation and punishment of offenders against the Church. After this, the Church began to start the Counter Reformation, where it was the Church’s attempt to strengthen itself and stop converts. The Council of Trent was a meeting called by the Pope that reframed Catholic beliefs definitely and worked on ending abuses in the Church. As a result of the Council of Trent it is confirmed that, the pope is the head of the Church, the Bible can be interpreted by the Church, the sale of indulgences is now prohibited, the Church clergy will now be more disciplined, and services may be delivered in languages other than latin. Also, the Inquisition returned and the Index was set up. The Index was a list of books that could not be printed or sold for they went against the teachings of the Church. The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus was formed. This religious society emphasized spiritual and moral discipline, followed strict obedience of Catholicism, set up schools and sent missionaries all over the world. The Jesuits helped spread Catholicism and advised nobles and princes. The Carmelites were an order of nuns that focused on prayer and meditation.
Both the Protestant and Catholic reformation led to a loss of religious unity in Europe where rulers of said countries would choose religions for the entirety of nations. It also sparked religious conflicts like wars between Germany and France as well as conflict between Spanish Catholics and English Protestants. In Protostant areas, Catholics were persecuted, and Catholic areas, Protestants were persecuted. There was a rise of anti-semitism, where the persection of Jews happened all around Europe. Also religious Witch-Hunts occurred, where fear and religious fervor lead people to accuse others of witchcraft and dark practices.
The Age of Exploration:
The Age of Exploration was a time period where European powers, “discover”, explored, conquered and developed colonies in new parts of the world, like North, Latin and South America. Before 1492 much of the world was unknown to Europeans. The Americas, especially, were not known by anyone outside of themselves. The fear of the unknown and myths of sea monsters kept Europeans from exploring. As well as a much more prevalent reason, which was a lack of technology. Europans had poor and inaccurate maps, poor ships and little navigational technology. As a result, during much of the Post Classical Era, trade was localized throughout the Mediterranean. But, this all changed as there was a strong desire for goods from Asia and the Middle East due to the Crusades. The travels of Marco Polo, an Italian merchant who wrote several letters documenting his travels also created interest in foriegn goods. Polo traveled to the Khan’s court and wrote several letters that interested many of the European commoners. Also, due to the Renaissances' questioning spirit and the ideas presented by Humanism, Europeans were interested in exploration. New technology developed like the astrolabe, which was developed in Asia and the Middle East, this allowed sailors to navigate at night. Better ships like caravels and galleons developed, where galleons could transport heavy loads of goods, silver and gold. Sliver quickly became the first global commodity, or the first product of international trade. It's important to note that many of the events of this period happened synchronously, as these European powers were trying to take control of the Americas, the Indian Ocean Trade, and develop colonies all during very similar years. And, as this was happening, the horrific events of the Middle Passage were evolving.
Indian Ocean Trade and European Involvement:
The Indian Ocean Trade route was a connection of major trade routes that linked the Middle East, Asia and North African Nations. Its height was between 600-1450 C.E. The trade was divided into zones: Arabic, Indian, and Chinese. Many goods and ideas spread through this trade route. For example, glass and textiles were sold from Asia, and specifically porcoline from China. Ivory, gold and salt was traded from Africa. Spices were traded from the Spice Islands, India and the East Indies. Islam was througholy spread through South Asia and Africa, as well as a bit of Hindumism. Monsoons, which are predictable and annually occurring storms, produce steady and strong winds at certain times of the year. Monsoon winds would push merchants to different parts of the world during certain times. These merchants would then have to stay months at this location until the seasonal winds of the monsoons were able to push their ships back. This was extremely prevalent with Indian Ocean trade. This seasonal trading based off of monsoon winds caused cultural diffusion, as ethnically and culturally different merchants would be spending months in forgein countries spreading their ideas and goods. Adapted technology had to be made to accommodate the monsoons, like Dhow ships and canteen sails. Though the Indian Ocean trade incorporated many different nations, it was evenly balanced between countries and peaceful. But this changed when European powers like Portugal became involved.
European powers were motivated by several things as they began to explore. First, the discovery of new trade routes was a major factor. Portugal begins the Age of European Exploration as it drives to cut out the Ottoman empire from it’s trade between the Middle East and Asia. The Ottoman empire acted like a “middleman” that regulated and raised prices for goods. Spain followed suit and tried to explore new trade routes. These new routes around the African continent, the Cape of Good Hope, cut out the Italian city states and the Muslicm Gunpowder Empires. Vasco De Gama, a Portuguse explorer, was the first to round the Cape of Good Hope and circle underneath Africa in order to reach the East. This occurred in 1498, and some even credit his discovery to be more influential than the journey of Columbus. The Portugese, after arriving in the Indian Ocean trade in the 1500s, tried to establish a monopoly on spices, especially pepper. The Portuguese used military technology and force, like gunpowder and cannons, to hold control over trading hubs. This ruined the peace and equalibrum of the previous Indian Ocean Trade.
European Commercial Revolution:
The Commercial Revolution Changed Life for Europeans. The Commercial Revolution was a period of economic changes in Europe. There was a great shift in trade from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. Its height was the 17-18th centuries. Cities on the Atlantic Ocean begin to gain wealth and power to trade, like London, Paris, Madrid, and Amsterdam. A higher standard of living developed for Europeans. Monarchs became stronger due to an increase in wealth from trade. Merchants begin to gain more respect on the social hierarchy, but they also gain new political and social power through a newly developing economic system called Capitalism. The World turned into a Global Economy, where trade is no longer local and goods are shipped and bought anywhere in the world. Sliver became the first global commodity sold around the world. Nations soon developed a dependence on their colonies and conquered lands of the new world. This developed into a new economic policy called Mercantilism. Here, nations form and acquire colonies for economic benefits. Wealth is now measured in gold and silver, it is no longer measured in how much it would cost for a nation to buy, sell or complete a task. Colonies under mercantilism existed only to benefit the home or “mother” country. Colonies supply raw materials like lumber and crops that are mostly harvested with exploited labor of the Native peoples. These materials are shipped back to the home country to be made into goods, which are then sold to other countries, then in turn sold to the Nation and its colonies. This is called triangular trade, and it occurred between Europe, Africa and the Americas.
European Rule in the Americas:
In 1492, while trying to find a direct route to the East in order to trade with the Spice Islands and India, Columbus brought the American Continents to European knowledge. With the discovery of the Americas, there is much new development in trade. Europeans flock to the “New World’ in order to fulfill the three G’s. The three G’s were the primary motives of Europeans: Gold, as in trade and profits, God, the spread of Catholicism, Glory, to bring prosperity to their home countries. After the discovery of the Americas, the motive of trade changes foucause to the three G’s and the Americas. A long list of goods came from this, as new products and products were introduced to both the Americas and Europe. But, the genocie, spreading of disease, forced labor, and human rights violations may outway the good. Portugal and Spain took the lead in New World exploration. Shortly after there came to be knowledge of the Americas, Spain and Portugal fought for control. Pope Alexander issued the treaty of Tordesillas. This treaty aimed to split South America equally between the two nations, but due to poor maps Spain received more land. Spain dominated South America, except for what is today known as Brazil, for that was owned by Portugal. Portugal then continues to focus on taking control of the Indian Ocean Trade and African trade. The Spanish ended the Aztec and Inca rule very quickly, but they were helped by the spread of European smallpox. The Catholic Church also issued orders, not just on spiritual subjects throughout the Americas.
Life for the Natives changed drastically for the Natives after the arrival of the Europeans. As Europeans arrived in the Americas, American Natives were exploited. Natives were forced to labor for Europeans, forced to convert to Christanity, and were inflicted by European diseases. The Viceroyalty was a system of government of Spanish colonies in the Americas. Here, government was issued in the King’s place, and Spain matinatied Strict control over their estates and colloines in the New World. Audiencias assisted Viceroy in government, these were courts that carried out laws and acted as advisors. Two labor systems that also can be referred to as economic systems developed in the Spanish America. The Hacienda system consisted of large farms and estates. These were owned and run by conquistadors, or Spanish conquers, and later on creoles. Natives were forced to work on this land in order to pay off “debts'' to the Europeans that would bind them to the land. The Natives would farm the land and these estates made much money for the European owners. Though the Natives were never forced into slavery like the Africans, they were still explotied for their labor. The second labor and economic system was the Encomienda system. This system involved mostly European landowners to swear to the king that they would protect Natives with military force on their lands if the Natives supplied labor. The Native population declined as disease, starvation, exploitation and cruel treatment was standard. The lawdowners viewed the Natives as “Red Gold '', due to the color of their skin and the amount of money that they could make the land owners. In 1549, the Encomienda system ended and was replaced by the Peonage System. This Peonage system is similar to the Encomienda but, debt is owed to landowners and Natives are able to work to pay it off. But, the Europeans made it very difficult for Natives to pay off this debt. In certain parts of the Americas like Mexico and Peru, Natives were forced to work in Gold and Silver Mines. This led to the rise of towns called Potosi, like those along the Andes Mountains which generated huge amounts of profit for Europeans. The mercury amalgamation process, which was used to better purify silver by extracting it from very toxic mercury, was highly profitable for Euopeans, but deadly for the Native miners. In Peru, the center of the Incan Empire, the Inacs originally used their own government structured labor and economic system called the Mita system. Europeamns took over this system, and exploited the Inca Natives through it.
The New World also changed socially, religiously and even environmentally due to the arrival of the Europeans. As African, Native, and European Cultures mixed, syncretism, or the fusion of cultures and religions occurred. Missionaries from many different countries were sent to convert masses of people in the New World to Catholicism. As due to the Protestant Reformation, many supporters and members of the Church were lost. Missionary run Churches, or Mission Churches held ownership of large areas of land. Missionaries often preached that European cultures were better than those that the Natives previously held. A very important religious event was the apparition, or appearance of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The Virgin of Guadalupe, also known as the Virgin Mother Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ supposedly appeared to a latin American farmer. She became a staple of Catholicism in Latin America and a part of Mexian identity within the Church. An especially important religious figure was Bartolome de la Casa. He was a Spanish Priest who spoke against the Encomienda system. He was known as, “the protector of Indians (natives)”. Due to him, and others, in 1549, the Encomienda system ended and was replaced by the Peonage System. This Peonage system is similar to the Encomienda but, debt is owed to landowners and Natives are able to work to pay it off. But, the Europeans made it very difficult for Natives to pay off this debt. A new colonial social hierarchy developed in the Americas, called the Castas, where class is based on race. On the top of the pyramid were the Peninsulares, who were Spanish people, mostly landowners who were born in Spain. Right under them were the Creoles, who were of pure Spanish descent, but were born In the Americas. Creoles eventually became the class to inherit and run the Hacienda estates. Under the Creoles, were the Mestizos and Mulattoes, who were a blend of European/Spanish descent and descent of American Natives. And lastly, the original Natives of the land and Africans that were brought from Africa as slaves were on the bottom of the Casta system.
The Effects of European rule was widespread. Iberian culture had a major impact in Latin America. Spanish is beginning to be spoken in Latin and South America during this time, for example, Brazil still speaks Portuguese today. Catholicism becomes the dominant religion. The Native Population is essentially killed by harsh conditions but most significantly disease. Smallpox killed thousands of Natives, leaving 80-90% of the population dead. One of the most prevalent effects was the start of the Columbian Exchange. The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of foods, animals, crops, goods, ideas, religions, plants and diseases between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. The Americans brought Potatoes, corn and tobacco to Europe. This became a steady and reliable source of food for Europe and therefore the population of Europe increased. To the Americas Europe brought: Livestock like horses, cattle, chickens and goats, wheat, which became a staple crop, Christanity, and Disease. Smallpox killed 80%-90% of the Natives, and the other Natives were killed by terrible labor conditions. The death and population decrease of the Native Americans caused a labor vacuum, or a huge need to exploit labor. And so, the Europeans turned to Africa and this was the beginning of the Middle Passage.
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Middle Passage:
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, also known as the Middle Passage was the captruing of enslaved Africans and briging them to the Americas to work rigorous forced labor. This was a horrific journey for slaves and a horrific labor system. After the deaths of thousands of Native Americas, labor was desprity needed by the Europeans in order to work plantations and haciendas, especially to farm sugar, cotton and tobacco. These were known as cash crops, for a lot of money could be made off them. Europeans had a great desire for profits, so they opened their Atlantic trade circuit to include Africa. This was the true beginning of triangular trade, which was the trading of raw materials and products from Europe, to Africa, to the Americas and back to Europe. The Slave trade existed all throught Africa, the Carrabian and the Congo. The Middle Passage was the transport of slaves from Africa, through the Atlantic ocean, to the Americas. Slaves were taken and transported especially from the West African Coast since it was simply closer to the Americas. Later on, when there was more demand, slaves were taken from the Affrican interior as well. Enslaved peoples were taken by the Spanish, Portugues and other European powers, sold in ports, and shipped to the Americas aboard Slave Ships. Some Affrican Kingdoms even combined with the Europeans and sold other rival tribes. Tribes like the Asante, Benin and Dahomey traded slaves for European rum and guns. The conditions for enslaved were terrible under the decks of transport ships. Onboard a slave ship, enslaved people were treated as products, not people. They would be chained together, many times in what is known as the “coffin position”, to effectively squeeze as many slaves as possible under the deck. Slaves would stay cramped in this position for months throughout the journey, in terrible, filthy conditions. Many Slaves died of disease and the horrible conditions on board by the time the ship reached America.
When in America, slaves were sold through a public auction, sold to a master, or owner. Here they would work, mostly labor and agricultural jobs under terrible conditions. This was called the Atlantic Plantation System, where African Slave Labor was used on farming estates called plantations, to produce large amounts of crops and profits. They were many times branded like cattles, wippied, humiliated, lashed, and lynched as punishment. Slaves were forced to convert to Christainty and were denied their native cultures and languages. Slave masters would twist the teachings of Christanity in order to justify the terrible acts committed against the African People.
The impact of the Slave trade is still existing today. There was a great loss of culture, life, and population for Africans. There was the emergence of Maroon communities, or African communities made up of runaway and freed slaves. The most powerful Maroon tribe was the Palmares, by using diplomatic and military means, they remained free from the Spanish and Portugal. The Asante, Benin and Dahomey tribes beiftffied from the Slave trade. A period of instability and civil war erupted in Africa and it still affects Africa to this day. Also, racial bias against darker skinned people emerged and this is still a very prevelte effect today.
Silver and Gold Trade:
Until about the 1750’s China required massive amounts of silver as a global commodity and currency. Sliver was the first global commodity and served as the engine of global trade. In the early 1570’s the Ming government required that all taxes and trade fees be paid in silver. China was known at this time as the “silver sink”. Spain desperately wished to trade with China and to receive Chinese luxury goods but China only accepted silver. As Spain discovered silver in the New World, they set up colonies in Mexico and Peru to produce silver. This thoroughly affected the natives as mining towns were set up and the Mita Inca Labor system forced natives to work in the mines, after the system was taken over and used by the Europeans. 8 million natives died excavating silver. At this time, both Japan and China were in periods of semi isolation where they had limited trade. The Japanese Tokugawa government also produced large amounts of silver, so while trading with China the Spanish dealt with Japan. Europe developed a dependence on Silver for Asian Goods. Silver eventually becomes the new mercantilism currency for the world. Much wealth goes to Spain, but in the long run Spain loses money because the goods they invested in were temporary. In China, citizens saved silver as payment and taxes. In China silver became a staple of the money economy, where no bartering for goods occurred, and silver was the only accepted payment
The Age of Absolutism:
The Age of Absolutism was a period of great political and economic change in both Western and Eastern Europe. Here, rulers develop into powerful and rich monarchs that ruled with absolute power, so total control over their subjects. As wealth rose in Europe after the Middle Ages, due to a great increase in trade as well as the Renaissance, European kings gained power. During the Middle Ages, Kings acted as a “figurehead”, with no real power, as the lords, or land owners of the manor had the true political influence. During the late 16th and 17th centuries, Europe experienced a period of religious wars, caused by the Prootstant and Catholicic reformations, as well as territorial wars, caused by new wealth within the kingdom. As monarchs gained wealth, they built up huge armies and collected hefty taxes in order to fund these armies. In order to create a sense of security for themselves and their kingdoms, monarchs srtipped the powers of nobles, lawmakers like the English Parliament, and citizens in order to direct that power for themselves. The result of this was the rise of absolutism, where monarchs had absolute power and control over their respective realms of rule. In order to remain in rule and justify their abuse of power, monarchs claimed they had the “Divine Right to Rule''. This is the belief that the right to rule was granted to a specific person by God. The Monarchs goal for their grand kingdoms was to preserve their lavish rule, centralize political power, and build powerful nations, mostly through expansion. Some of the rulers that set the stage for absolute monarchs were King Henry the lllV and Queen Elizabeth l from England and King Philip ll from Spain.
Reactions to Absolutism:
The Magna Carta was a bill of rights that was signed by King John of England in 1215. This was way before the Age of Absolutism! But, it helped set the stage for the end of the Age of Absolution in England, which was marked by the English Bill of Rights. The Magna Carta established Church rights, a right to swift justice and limits on the King's power.
Thomas Hobbes wrote the Leviathan, this was a book that supported absolute monarchy. He reasoned that people act in their own selfish interest, and because of this, need a powerful government to maintain order and stability. He is known for the drawing of a great king overlooking a stormy sea. But, when one looks closely at the King they see that he is composed of many different small peoples, who have no differentiation or identity. The King also holds a sword showing his military and political power and a staff of the “Good Shepherd”, which shows how a king should also have power over religion.
John Locke on the other hand, was the author of A Treatise on Government, He was not for absolute rule, as he stated that people have a right to life, liberty and property. He also stated that a government abuses its appropriate power and infringes on the natural rights of people that citizens have the right to rebel against. Though Locke was not an absolutist, he still agreed that citizens need to give up some freedoms to live in a stable and civilized state.
Rulers that Exemplify Absolute Rule:
King Phillip ll of Spain lived from 1527-1598. He was the son of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, meaning he was very Catholic. When he had rule over the Netherlands, Philip completely outlawed Protestantism and strictly restricted the rights of his people. He used the Inquisition Court that was set up during the Catholic Reformation to kill or exile thousands of Protestants. Due to this, Protestants developed and waged an 80 year long religious civil war. Philip also oppressed the Chirstinaized Mulsims of Spain, this also caused a rebellion. Philip used Spain’s powerful army to destroy the Ottoman navy at the Battle of Lepanto, this severely weakened the Ottoman Empire and led the way for the aging empire's decline. Philps desire to return the English to Catholicism led him to the decision of invading England by Navy during King Henry iiiV of England's reign. Philip truly believed that he had God on his side, and that he would be able to return the English to Catholicism. In order to prepare for this invasion, Philip ordered the construction of the Armada, a great naval fleet. By using skillful tactics, and the help of severe storms, the less powerful English defeated the Armada and stopped the invasion.
Queen Elizabeth l of England, was the daughter of Henry Vlll, after his only male heir died before he could properly take over the crown. This left Queen Elizabeth, the last ruler of the Tudor dynasty to rule over England. She lived from 1558-1603. She, like King Philip ll of Spain, was an absolute ruler. Elizabeth re-established the Act of Supremacy that made her, like her father, the supreme head of the Church of England. She also set up an Act of Uniformity which gave her the power to enforce a uniform system of Protostant worship. 39 Articles restored Protestantism to England, and factions of Protestantism, like the Puritans, were allowed. Though she was an absolute ruler, she respected Parliament, the English elected legislative branch, and they were loyal to her. She encouraged and funded the growth of an expansive army, especially an effective navy. She supported causes that weakened the Catholic rulers of France and Spain. During her reign, she increased the spirit of nationalism, or extreme pride in one's country to the point of ethnocentrism. Commerce and trade flourished under her, as new companies formed and the English cloth trade grew. A middle class emerged. And, gentry, landowners in the countryside, emerged and became powerful. During her reign, she won the affection and loyalty of her people. She was also credited with the Elizabeth Age, English Renaissance, where arts and the economy flourished. Though she was a well liked ruler, she still strictly limited her citizens rights and the power of the English nobles. She died with no heir, so the English crown was passed to her Scottish cousins, The Stuart Family.
The Stuart family were cousins of Queen Elizabeth l of England. From the Stuart family came the absolute ruler of James l. He was a complete absolute monarch, who justified his rule with the principle of Divine right. He was constantly in disagreement with Parliament over funding and taxes. But even more of an absolute monarch that James l, was his son, Charles l. Charles l fought often with Parliament. Because of this, he dissolves Parliament. After threats of a civil war arose after the dissolving of Parliament, Chalres l signed the Petition of Rights. This was supposed to give power back to Parliament, in order to avoid a civil war. But, Charles completely ignored the Petition that he himself signed, and he continued to ignore Parliament and abuse his power. This caused the English Civil War.
The English Civil War and the Interregnum:
The English Civil War was a period of internal warfare and disorder through England. Caused by Charles l of England's absolute rule and abuse of power, the war consisted of Charles and his supporters versus Parliament and the majority of the English people. The Supporters of Chalrels were called Cavaliers, where the supporters of Parliament were known as the Roundheads. King Charles the l was eventually tried for treason and tyranny. He was then found guilty by Parliament, and executed by beheading by an axe. This was monumental, as it sent a message to monarchs all around the world, especially others in the Stuart family, that abuse of power would not be accepted. It's a shame no one listened. After the death of Charles l, a period of rule called the Interregnum occurred. Here, the monarchy was disbanded by lawmakers. And so, a legislator called Oliver Cormwell ruled over England, but not as a King. Cromwell enforced strict religious laws regarding the Puritian denomination of Protestantism, just like the absolute rulers that he disbanded. Cromwell himself turned into a dictator and fought with Parliament.
The English Restoration and Glorious Revolution:
After the rule of Oliver Cromwell, it was agreed that the English crown would be placed back into the hands of the Stuart Family. Charles the ll takes over rule. He rules peacefully and in agreement with Parliament and legislature. But, like the pattern that has been seen before, his son was different. James the ll of England, son of Charles the ll was an absolute monarch who constantly was in disagreement with Parliament. James the ii was exiled from England for his absolute rule, and a new bloodless transfer of power occurred. James ii son, Willian, and his wife Mary were given the crown. They were both Protestants that were not absolute monarchs. They signed the English Bill of rights, which limited the power of the Monarch, and extended the power of Parliament. It granted some basic rights to citizens and made an absolute monarchy unprecedented. It was based on King John’s Magna Carta. William’s reign became known as the Restoration and Glorious Revolution, as it put an end to the years of abusive absolute monarchies. Because of this reign, Engkand became a limited monarchy, or what is known today as a Constitutional Monarchy.
Absolute Rule In France:
Even though England has a lineage of absolute monarchs, this type of monarchy existed elsewhere. One place being in France, with King Louis XlV. Louis came into power at a very young age in 1653. He became known as the “Sun King '', as he believed he was destined to rule by God, something called Divine Right, and for his absolute power. Louis XIV was a Cathpolic, so he revoked the Edict of Dantes, this allowed French Calvinists, known as Huguenots to worship. He pushed the country heavily to Catholicism, as another example of his absolute rule. Louis stripped power from the Noble class and raised taxes to afford his lavish lifestyle. This caused the tax collector to have a great deal of power. Louis created a centralized legal system and he placed heavy emphasis on the arts and education. As this can be seen from the Palace of Versailles. The Palace of Versailles, was the King's residence and the center of French government. The Palace was extremely rich, as it was decked in gold and mirrors, which were very expensive. King Louis XlV was known for his luxurious lifestyle. Louis XIV brought France to its peak of absolute power with his words ``L'etat c'est moi”, which means, “I am the State.” Louis promoted an emphasis of a self sufficient economy, and he promoted expansion and the foundation of colonies in the New World. Louis used the merchandise economy and he built up the French military.
Absolute Rule In Russia:
The best example of Absolute Rule in Russia would be the reign of Peter The Great. After a trip to lavish Westen Europe, Peter became self conscious of his own country, and made it his goal to change it. Peter forced Russia to be more like the West, through something called Westernization, where the culture and appearance of Western Europe was pushed onto Russia. Peter emphasised on a Western Education and a Western manor of dressing. The prime example of Peter’s Westernization was his No Beard Policy. This banned the nobleds from growing out their lavish beards, even going so far as to physically rip the beards out of his nobles' faces, Peter took state control of the Church, the holy Synod. He modernized the military with new weapons, ships and general industrialization. He raised taxes for serfs. He also used a system called the Tables of Ranks, where he would list and rank his nobles. He greatly reduced the power of Nobles as well, increasing the power of the Czar. He expanded social gatherings to include women, in an attempt to be more like wetsern Europe. He created new schools that taught the arts, navigation, sciences, and he created hospitals and museums. Peter the Great is also most known for the foundation of the City of St. Petersburg. It became the capital of Russia. St.Petersburg was known as the “window to the west” as it was close to Western Europe, had Western design and became a busy area of trade. St. Petersburg was also known as a “city built on bones'' because of the amount of death that occurred during construction. Peter waged a war with Sweden in order to gain control of the Baltic Sea, but this waterway froze over in the winter making trade limited. This caused Peter to fight for the Black Sea, which he ultimately never gained control over. There was an ongoing spirit of expansion during Peter the Great's Rule.